Molecular marker of plasmodium falciparum artemisinin resistance

ABSTRACT

K13-propeller polymorphism is a useful molecular marker for tracking the emergence and spread of ART-resistant  P. falciparum . The invention encompasses methods, compositions, and kits for detecting and genotyping  Plasmodium , for example,  Plasmodium falciparum . The methods, compositions, and kits can be used to detect the presence or absence of a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein in the sample.

SEQUENCE LISTING

The sequence listing submitted herewith as an ASCII text file is named Listing.txt, was created on Dec. 16, 2020, is 68,819 byes in size, and is hereby incorporated herein by reference.

SEQUENCE LISTING

The sequence listing submitted herewith as an ASCII text file is named Listing.txt, was created on Dec. 16, 2020, is 68,819 byes in size, and is hereby incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The emergence of Plasmodium falciparum resistance to artemisinin derivatives (ART) in Cambodia threatens the world's malaria control and elimination efforts^(1, 2) The risk of ART-resistant parasites spreading from Western Cambodia to the Greater Mekong Subregion and to Africa, as happened previously with chloroquine- and sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine-resistant parasites³⁻⁵, is extremely worrisome. Clinical ART resistance is defined as a reduced parasite clearance rate^(1, 6-10), expressed as an increased parasite clearance half-life^(11, 12), or a persistence of microscopically-detectable parasites on the third day of artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT)². The half-life parameter correlates strongly with results from the in vitro Ring-stage Survival Assay (RSA^(0-3h)) and the ex vivo RSA¹³, which measure the survival rate of young ring-stage parasites to a pharmacologically-relevant exposure (700 nM for 6 h) to dihydroartemisinin (DHA)—the major metabolite of all ARTs. However, the present lack of a molecular marker hampers focused containment of ART-resistant parasites in areas where they have been documented and hinders rapid detection of these parasites elsewhere, where ACTs remain the most affordable, effective antimalarials. To detect and monitor the spread of ART resistance, a molecular marker for widespread use is needed.

Recent genome-wide analyses of P. falciparum isolates have provided evidence of recent positive selection in geographic areas of ART resistance^(9, 14-16). While parasite heritability of the clinical phenotype is above 50%, no reliable molecular marker has yet been identified. One possible explanation is that the parasite clearance half-life is not only determined by the intrinsic susceptibility of a parasite isolate to ART, but also by its developmental stage at the time of ART treatment and host-related parameters such as pharmacokinetics and immunity¹⁷. This issue was recently highlighted in patients presenting discordant data between parasite clearance half-life in vivo and RSA^(0-3h) survival rate in vitro¹³. Moreover, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are confounded by uncertainties about parasite population structure. Recent evidence for several highly-differentiated subpopulations of ART-resistant parasites in Western Cambodia¹⁵ suggests that distinct emergence events might be occurring. An alternative strategy to discover a molecular marker is to analyze mutations acquired specifically by laboratory-adapted parasite clones selected to survive high doses of ART in vitro, and use this information to guide analysis of polymorphism in clinical parasite isolates from areas where ART resistance is well documented at both temporal and geographical levels. Here we used this strategy to explore the molecular signatures of clinical ART resistance in Cambodia, where this phenotype was first reported^(1, 8).

Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are a key facet of global malaria control efforts. Nkhoma et al., JID 208:346-349 (2013). However, the emergence of artemisinin-resistant malaria has threatened these efforts. Id. There are currently no reliable in vitro tests for measuring ART resistance. Id. Therefore, ART sensitivity has been measured in patients from the decline of parasitemia following ART treatment. Id. This approach is expensive, labor-intensive, and time-consuming. Id.

The current lack of a molecular marker hampers containment efforts in the foci where resistance has been documented and hinders rapid detection of ART-resistance in other endemic areas where ART remains the most affordable and efficient antimalarial drug. To monitor ART-resistance at a large scale, a molecular marker associated with ART-resistance is urgently needed. The current invention fulfills this need in the art.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention encompasses methods, compositions, and kits for detecting and genotyping Plasmodium. In one embodiment, the method comprises providing a sample containing a Plasmodium; and detecting the presence of a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein in the sample. Preferably, the Plasmodium is Plasmodium falciparum.

In one embodiment, the presence of a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid in the sample is detected by sequencing. In one embodiment, the presence of a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid in the sample is detected by PCR.

The invention encompasses methods, compositions and kits for the detection of a Plasmodium infection in an infected patient. In one embodiment, the method comprises providing a blood sample from a patient and detecting the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein in the blood sample. The method can comprise determining whether the Plasmodium has a wild-type or mutant K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein sequence.

Preferably, the Plasmodium is Plasmodium falciparum.

In one embodiment, the presence of a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid in the sample is detected by sequencing. In one embodiment, the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid in the sample is detected by PCR.

In one embodiment, the kit for detecting a Plasmodium infection comprises primers for the amplification of a K-13 propeller nucleic acid and reagents for the detection of the amplified product.

In one embodiment, the kit contains a probe for detecting a mutant K-13 propeller nucleic acid. Preferably, the probe is labeled with a fluorescent or enzymatic label.

In various embodiments, the kit detects a mutant K-13 propeller nucleic acid encoding a Y493H, R539T, I543T, and C580Y allele.

In an embodiment the kit detects a mutant K-13 propeller nucleic acid encoding a Y493H, R539T, I543T or C580Y allele.

In various embodiments, the kit comprises at least one of the following primers:

5′-cggagtgaccaaatctggga-3′ (SEQ ID NO:9);

5′-gggaatctggtggtaacagc-3′ (SEQ ID NO:10);

5′-cgccagcattgttgactaat-3′ (SEQ ID NO:11); and

5′-gcggaagtagtagcgagaat-3′ (SEQ ID NO:12);

or the kit comprises at least one of the following primers:

5′-cggagtgaccaaatctggga-3′ (SEQ ID NO:9);

5′-gggaatctggtggtaacagc-3′ (SEQ ID NO:10);

5′-cgccagcattgttgactaat-3′ (SEQ ID NO:11);

5′-gcggaagtagtagcgagaat-3′ (SEQ ID NO:12);

5′-gccaagctgccattcatttg-3′ (SEQ ID NO:13); and

5′-gccttgttgaaagaagcaga-3′ (SEQ ID NO:14).

In various embodiments, the kit detects a mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid encoding a F446I, N458Y, C469Y, Y493H, K503N, R539T, I543T, P553L, P574L, A578S, C580Y, and D584V allele.

In various embodiments, the kit detects a mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid encoding a F446I, G449A, N458Y, C469Y, W470stop, A481V, Y493H, K503N, S522C, V534A, R539T, I543T, G548D, P553L, V555A, A557S, R561H, K563R, V568G, P574L, A578S, C580Y, F583L, D584V, V589I, Q613E, and D641G allele.

In various embodiments, the kit comprises at least one of the following pairs of primers:

Pair PCR1

5′ aggtggatttgatggtgtagaat 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:15)

5′ catacacctcagtttcaaataaagc 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:16)

Pair PCR2

5′ aatttcttatacgtttttggtggtaa 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:17)

5′ ctctacccatgctttcatacgat 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:18)

Pair PCR3

5′ ggatatgatggctcttctattataccg 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:19)

5′ acttcaatagaatttaatctctcacca 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:20)

Pair PCR4

5′ atgtcattggtggaactaatggt 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:21)

5′ ttaaatggttgatattgttcaacg 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:22)

Pair PCR5

5′ ttcaggagcagcttttaattacc 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:23)

5′ ctggtgaaaagaaatgacatgaa 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:24)

Pair PCR6

5′ ccttgttgaaagaagcagaattt 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:25)

5′ attcaatacagcacttccaaaataa 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:26)

In various embodiments, the kit comprises at least one probe hybridizing with one of the following SNP:

F446I ttt/att

G449A ggt/gct

N458Y aat/tat

C469Y tgc/tac

W470stop tgg/tga

A481V gct/gtt

Y493H tac/cac

K503N aag/aat

S522C agt/tgt

V534A gtt/gct

R539T aga/aca

I543T att/act

G548D ggc/gac

P553L ccg/ctg

V555A gta/gca

A557S gca/tca

R561H cgt/cat

K563R aaa/aga

V568G gtg/ggg

P574L cct/ctt

A578S gct/tct

C580Y tgt/tat

F583L ttt/tta/g

D584V gat/gtt

V589I gtc/atc

Q613E caa/gaa

D641G gat/ggt.

The invention encompasses a method for detecting in a biological sample containing Plasmodium the presence of a wild-type K13 propeller nucleic acid or a mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid comprising:

providing a biological sample containing DNA of Plasmodium;

optionally extracting DNA from the biological sample;

contacting the DNA of Plasmodium with at least one pair of primers which hybridize specifically with the K13 propeller nucleic acid at a distance ranging from 100 to 300 bp and performing a PCR reaction in the presence of intercalating dye;

subjecting amplification products to a melting step;

determining the presence of a mutant allele or a wild type allele by analyzing the melting profile of the amplification products.

In some embodiments, the method comprises detecting a mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid encoding a F446I, G449A, N458Y, C469Y, W470stop, A481V, Y493H, K503N, S522C, V534A, R539T, I543T, G548D, P553L, V555A, A557S, R561H, K563R, V568G, P574L, A578S, C580Y, F583L, D584V, V589I, Q613E, and D641G allele.

The invention encompasses a method for detecting in a biological sample containing Plasmodium the presence of a mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid comprising amplifying the mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid by PCR reaction, and contacting the amplified nucleic acid with a probe specific for a mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid.

In some embodiments, the probe is bound to a fluorescent bead or biotin.

In some embodiments, the method comprises binding the probe to the mutant K13 propeller domain nucleic acid and detecting the bound K13 propeller domain nucleic acid with a second probe that binds to the bound K13 propeller domain nucleic acid.

In some embodiments, the presence of a mutated K13 propeller nucleic acid or protein indicates that the patient is infected with a Plasmodium resistant to artemisinin derivatives.

In some embodiments, the method comprises administering to said patient infected with a Plasmodium resistant to artemisinin derivatives a treatment based on artemisinin derivatives longer than the routine protocol, and/or another anti-malarial drug, preferably quinine, chloroquine or mefloquine.

In some embodiments, the method comprises administering to said patient infected with a Plasmodium resistant to artemisinin derivatives a treatment based on a new antimalarial drug, and repeating steps a) and b) after administering said treatment, wherein the absence of a mutated K13 propeller nucleic acid or protein indicates that the patient is no longer infected with a Plasmodium resistant to artemisinin derivatives and said treatment is efficient on a Plasmodium resistant to artemisinin derivatives.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 —Temporal acquisition of mutations in F32-ART5. F32-Tanzania parasites exposed to increasing artemisinin concentrations for 120 consecutive cycles¹⁸ were analysed by whole-genome sequencing at five time-points (grey arrows). Loci mutated after a given number of drug-pressure cycles are shown (boxes). The earliest time-points where three mutations were detected by PCR (black arrows) are indicated by ø for PF3D7_1343700, * for PF3D7_0213400 and # for PF3D7_1115700. Circles indicate RSA^(0-3h) survival rates for F32-ART5 and F32-TEM parasites, respectively.

FIG. 2 —Survival rates of Cambodian parasite isolates in the RSA^(0-3h), stratified by K13-propeller allele. Genotypes were obtained by mining whole-genome sequence data (n=21) or sequencing PCR products (n=28). Mutant parasites have significantly higher RSA^(0-3h) survival rates than wildtype parasites: wildtype (n=17, median 0.16%, IQR 0.09-0.24, range 0.04-0.51); C580Y (n=26, median 14.1%, IQR 11.3-19.6, range 3.8-27.3, P<10⁻⁶ for wildtype vs. C580Y, Mann-Whitney U test); R539T (n=5, median 24.2%, IQR 12.6-29.5, range 5.8-31.3, P<10⁻³ for wildtype vs. R539T); Y493H (51.4%); and I543T (58.0%). The RSA^(0-3h) survival rate (0.04%) of control 3D7 parasites is indicated by an asterisk.

FIG. 3 —Frequency of K13-propeller alleles in 886 parasite isolates in six Cambodian provinces in 2001-2012. Genotypes were obtained by sequencing PCR products from archived blood samples. All mutant alleles carry a single non-synonymous SNP (color-coded, same color-codes as in FIG. 2 for wildtype, C580Y, R539T, Y493H and I543T). Significant reductions (Fisher's exact test) in wildtype allele frequencies were observed in Pailin, Battambang, Pursat and Kratie over time (see Examples).

FIGS. 4A to 4B—A, Correlation of parasite clearance half-lives and K13-propeller alleles for parasite isolates in Pursat and Ratanakiri in 2009-2010. Wildtype parasites have shorter half-lives (median 3.30 h, IQR 2.59-3.95, n=72) than C580Y (7.19 h, 6.47-8.31, n=51, P<10⁻⁶, Mann-Whitney U test), R539T (6.64 h, 6.00-6.72, n=6, P<10⁻⁶) or Y493H (6.28 h, 5.37-7.14, n=21, P<10⁻⁶) parasites. The half-life of C580Y parasites is significantly longer than that of Y493H parasites (P=0.007). B, Correlation of parasite clearance half-lives, KH subpopulations¹⁵ and K13-propeller alleles for the same 150 parasite isolates. Half-lives are shown for Pursat (squares) and Ratanakiri (triangles) parasites, stratified by KH group and K13-propeller allele (color-coded as in panel A). Median half-lives stratified by K13-propeller allele are: [KH1: wildtype (2.88) and Y493H (6.77); KH2: C580Y (7.13) and Y493H (4.71); KH3: wildtype (3.65), C580Y (8.73) and R539T (6.65); KH4: Y493H (6.37); and KHA: wildtype (4.01), C580Y (7.09), Y493H (6.18) and R539T (5.73)].

FIGS. 5A to 5B—SNP-calling algorithm of the whole-genome sequence comparison of F32-ART5 and F32-TEM (a), and sequence and coverage of SNPs in 7 candidate genes differing in F32-TEM and F-32 ART5 (b).

FIG. 6 —Geographic distribution of K13-propeller alleles in Cambodia in 2011-2012.

Pie charts show K13-propeller allele frequencies among 300 parasite isolates in ten Cambodian provinces. Pie sizes are proportional to the number of isolates and the different alleles are color-coded as in FIG. 3 . The frequencies (95% CI) of mutant K13-propeller alleles are: Pailin (95%, 88-99, n=84), Battambang (93%, 87-99, n=71), Pursat (89%, 67-99, n=19), Kampot (83%, 52-98, n=12), Kampong Som (71%, 29-96, n=7), Oddar Meanchey (76%, 58-89, n=33), Preah Vihear (16%, 3-40, n=19), Kratie (71%, 44-90, n=17), Mondulkiri (67%, 9-99, n=3) and Ratanakiri (6%, 1-19, n=35).

FIG. 7 —Correlation between the frequency of wildtype K13-propeller alleles and the prevalence of day 3 positivity after ACT treatment in eight Cambodian provinces.

The frequency of day 3 positivity is plotted against the frequency of wildtype K13-propeller alleles. Data are derived from patients treated with an ACT for P. falciparum malaria in 2010-2012 in eight Cambodian provinces (FIG. 4 ): Pailin (n=86, 2011 WHO therapeutic efficacy study, artesunate-mefloquine); Pursat (n=32, 2012 WHO therapeutic efficacy study, dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine); Oddar Meanchey (n=32, 2010 NAMRU-2 therapeutic efficacy study, artesunate-mefloquine); Kampong Som/Speu (n=7, 2012 WHO therapeutic efficacy study, dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine); Battambang (n=18, 2012 WHO therapeutic efficacy study, dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine); Kratie (n=15, 2011 WHO therapeutic efficacy study, dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine); Preah Vihear (n=19, 2011 WHO therapeutic efficacy study, dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine); Ratanakiri (n=32, 2010 WHO therapeutic efficacy study, dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine). Spearman's coefficient of rank correlation (8 sites): r=−0.99, 95% CI −0.99 to −0.96, P<0.0001.

FIGS. 8A and 8B—Schematic representation of homology between P. falciparum K13 and human KEAP1 proteins (A) and structural 3D-model of the K13-propeller domain (B).

A. Schematic representation of the predicted PF3D7_1343700 protein and homology to human Keap1. Similar to Keap1, PF3D7_1343700 contains a BTB/POZ domain and a C-terminal 6-blade propeller, which assembles kelch motifs consisting of four anti-parallel beta sheets. B. Structural 3D-model of the K13-propeller domain showing the six kelch blades numbered 1 to 6 from N- to C-terminus.

The level of amino-acid identity between the K13-propeller and kelch domains of proteins with solved 3D-structures, including human Keap1^(46,47), enabled us to model the 3D-structure of the K13-propeller and to map the mutations selected under ART pressure (Table 4). The accuracy of the K13-propeller 3D-model was confirmed by Modeller-specific model/fold criteria of reliability (see Examples). We predict that the K13-propeller folds into a six-bladed β-propeller structure⁴⁸ closed by the interaction between a C-terminal beta-sheet and the N-terminal blade^(46,45). The first domain has three beta sheets, the 4^(th) one being contributed by an extra C-terminal beta sheet called β′1 in FIG. 9 .

The human Keap1 kelch propeller scaffold is destabilized by a variety of mutations affecting intra- or inter-blade interactions in human lung cancer⁴⁶ and hypertension⁴⁷. The positions of the various mutations are indicated by a sphere. The M476 residue mutated in F32-ART5 is indicated in dark grey. Like the mutations observed in human Keap1^(46,47), many K13-propeller mutations are predicted to alter the structure of the propeller or modify surface charges, and as a consequence alter the biological function of the protein. Importantly, the two major mutations C580Y and R539T observed in Cambodia are both non-conservative and located in organized secondary structures: a p-sheet of blade 4 where it is predicted to alter the integrity of this scaffold and at the surface of blade 3, respectively.

The kelch propeller domain of Keap1 is involved in protein-protein interactions like most kelch containing modules⁴³. Keap1 is a negative regulator of the inducible Nrf2-dependent cytoprotective response, sequestering Nrf2 in the cytoplasm under steady state. Upon oxidative stress, the Nrf2/Keap1 complex is disrupted, Nrf2 translocates to the nucleus, where it induces transcription of cytoprotective ARE-dependent genes^(49,50). We speculate that similar functions may be devoted to PF3D7_1343700 in P. falciparum, such that mutations of the K13-propeller impair its interactions with an unknown protein partner, resulting in a deregulated anti-oxidant/cytoprotective response. The P. falciparum anti-oxidant response is maximal during the late trophozoite stage, when hemoglobin digestion and metabolism are highest⁵¹. Its regulation is still poorly understood and no Nrf2 ortholog could be identified in the Plasmodium genome.

FIGS. 9A and 9B—PF3D7_1343700 reference nucleic acid (SEQ ID NO:1) and amino acid (SEQ ID NO:2) coding sequences (3D7-type) and mutant positions.

FIG. 9A color code: dark grey, Plasmodium-specific (1-225) and Apicomplexa-specific (225-345) positions; light grey, BTB/POZ domain. In FIG. 9B the positions of the polymorphic codons reported in PlasmoDB version 9.3 (http://www.plasmodb.org/plasmo/) and those observed in the present study are boxed in black. Note that most reported polymorphisms are located in the N-terminal domain apart from E621 D observed in one isolate from The Gambia (ref. 44). Six individual kelch domains are localized from residue 443 to 473, 474 to 526, 527 to 573, 574 to 614, 615 to 666, and 667 to 726, respectively.

FIGS. 10A to 10C—ClustalW-Alignment of the protein sequence of PF3D7_1343700 orthologs from seven Plasmodium species.

Codes:

F-XP_001350158 P. falciparum (PF3D7_1343700) (SEQ ID NO:2)

V-XP_001614215 P. vivax Sal1 (SEQ ID NO:3)

C-XP_004223579 P. cynomolgi (SEQ ID NO:4)

K-XP_002259918 P. knowlesi (SEQ ID NO:5)

B-XP_674094 P. berghei (SEQ ID NO:6)

Y-XP_730901 P. yoelii (SEQ ID NO:7)

PCHAS_136130 P. chabaudi (SEQ ID NO:8)

Polymorphic P. falciparum residues are shaded in grey.

FIG. 11 —Real time PCR-HRM: detection of mutated K13 propeller alleles versus wild type K13 propeller allele. Nucleic acid sequence is nt 1261-2181 of SEQ ID NO:1. Amino acid sequence is aa 421-726 of SEQ ID NO:2.

Six pairs of primers designed on the sequence of the propeller domain of K13 gene to amplify all the domain and are designated by arrows.

FIGS. 12A and 12B—A) Detection of mutated K13 propeller alleles versus wild type K13 propeller allele by real time PCR-HRM (nt 1279-2127 of SEQ ID NO:1).

B) Sequence of the six primer pairs, their localization on the nucleic acid sequence of the K13 propeller domain and size of amplification products. (SEQ ID NOs:27-38).

FIG. 13 —Detection of 20 of the mutated K13 propeller alleles by PCR reaction and probe hybridization by a Luminex® multiplex assay (Multiplex Ligase Detection Reaction-fluorescent microsphere assay). Nucleic acid sequence is nt 1261-2181 of SEQ ID NO:1. Amino acid sequence is aa 421-726 of SEQ ID NO:2.

Black arrows show primers for PCR reaction,

Primer F 5′ gccttgttgaaagaagcaga 3′ (SEQ ID NO:14)

Primer R 5′-gccaagctgccattcatttg-3′ (SEQ ID NO:13)

Specific probes (light grey and dark grey) are designed in order to detect Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP) in the K13 propeller domain. Light grey probes are allele-specific and are bound to fluorescent beads. For each light grey position, there are two probes, one with the mutated nucleotide at 3′ extremity and one with the wild-type nucleotide at 3′ extremity. Dark grey probes are designed in conserved sequence regions and are bound to biotin.

List of SNPs:

-   -   F446I ttt/att     -   G449A ggt/gct     -   N458Y aat/tat     -   C469Y tgc/tac     -   W470stop tgg/tga     -   A481V gct/gtt     -   Y493H tac/cac     -   K503N aag/aat     -   S522C agt/tgt     -   V534A gtt/gct     -   R539T aga/aca     -   I543T att/act     -   G548D ggc/gac     -   P553L ccg/ctg     -   V555A gta/gca     -   A557S gca/tca     -   R561H cgt/cat     -   K563R aaa/aga     -   V568G gtg/ggg     -   P574L cct/ctt     -   A578S gct/tct     -   C580Y tgt/tat     -   F583L ttt/tta/g     -   D584V gat/gtt     -   V589I gtc/atc     -   Q613E caa/gaa     -   D641G gat/ggt

nucleotide at 3′ wild type extremity of Non synonymous codon versus allele-specific SNP mutant codon probe F446I ttt/att 1336 G449A ggt/gct 1346 N458Y aat/tat 1372 C469Y tgc/tac 1406 W470stop tgg/tga 1410 A481V gct/gtt 1442 Y493H tac/cac 1477 K503N aag/aat 1509 S522C agt/tgt 1564 V534A gtt/gct 1601 R539T aga/aca 1616 I543T att/act 1628 G548D ggc/gac 1643 P553L ccg/ctg 1658 V555A gta/gca 1664 A557S gca/tca 1669 R561H cgt/cat 1682 K563R aaa/aga 1688 V568G gtg/ggg 1703 P574L cct/ctt 1721 A578S gct/tct 1732 C580Y tgt/tat 1739 F583L ttt/tta/g 1749 D584V gat/gtt 1751 V589I gtc/atc 1765 Q613E caa/gaa 1837 D641G gat/ggt 1922

FIG. 14 presents Table 1—Sequence of the primers used to amplify the genes containing non-synonymous single-nucleotide polymorphisms in F32-ART5. Forward primers (SEQ ID NOs 39-45) and reverse primers (SEQ ID NOs 46-52) are shown.

FIG. 15 presents Table 2—Description of the eight non-synonymous, single-nucleotide polymorphisms acquired in the F32-ART5 compared to the F32-TEM lineage during an effective 5-year discontinuous exposure to increasing concentrations of artemisinin.

#3D7-type sequence; the same codon sequence is also observed in the parental F32-Tanzania line.

*Artemisinin (ART) dose used for selection during the corresponding drug-pressure cycle.

^(a) Genes found in the chromosomal location of top-ranked signatures of selection in Takala-Harrison et al.¹⁶.

FIGS. 16A to 16B present Table 3—Reported characteristics of the genes mutated in F32-ART5 parasites.

FIG. 17 presents Table 4—Geographic origin and year of collection of archived blood samples studied for K13-propeller polymorphism.

FIG. 18 presents Table 5—Polymorphisms observed in the K13-propeller in Cambodian P. falciparum isolates collected in 2001-2012 and in The Gambia (ref. 42).

* observed in F32-ART5, not observed in Cambodia

** reported in The Gambia (ref. 42), not observed in Cambodia

FIG. 19 presents Table 6—Association between polymorphisms observed in the K13-propeller and KH subpopulations (ref. 15) observed in 150 P. falciparum isolates collected in 2009-2010 in Pursat (n=103) and Ratanakiri (n=47) provinces, Cambodia.

FIG. 20 presents Table 7—List of the most frequent mutations identified in K13 propeller domain in Asia and Africa.

FIGS. 21A and 21B present Table 8A, FIGS. 22A and 22B present Table 8B, and FIGS. 23A and 23B present Table 8C. FIGS. 21A, 21B, 22A, 22B, 23A, and 23B together show Fifty clinical P. falciparum isolates from Cambodia (collected in 2010 and 2011) that were adapted to in vitro culture as described by Witkowski et al.⁴⁵ RSA and polymorphisms are indicated.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Plasmodium falciparum resistance to artemisinin derivatives in Southeast Asia threatens malaria control and elimination activities worldwide. To monitor the spread of artemisinin-resistance, a molecular marker is urgently needed. Here, using whole-genome sequencing of an artemisinin-resistant parasite line from Africa and clinical parasite isolates from Cambodia, we associate mutations in the PF3D7_1343700 kelch propeller domain (‘K13-propeller’) with artemisinin resistance in vitro and in vivo. Mutant K13-propeller alleles cluster in Cambodian provinces where resistance is prevalent, and the increasing frequency of a dominant mutant K13-propeller allele correlates with the recent spread of resistance in Western Cambodia. Strong correlations between the presence of a mutant allele, in vitro parasite survival rates, and in vivo parasite clearance rates indicate that K13-propeller mutations are important determinants of artemisinin resistance. K13-propeller polymorphism constitutes a useful molecular marker for large-scale surveillance efforts to contain artemisinin resistance in the Greater Mekong Subregion and prevent its global spread.

Identification of a Candidate Molecular Marker for ART Resistance

The ART-resistant F32-ART5 parasite line was selected by culturing the ART-sensitive F32-Tanzania clone under a dose-escalating, 125-cycle regimen of artemisinin for 5 years¹⁸. Whole-genome sequences were obtained for both F32-ART5 and F32-TEM (its sibling clone cultured without artemisinin) at 460× and 500× average nucleotide coverage, respectively. Compared to F32-TEM, no deleted genes were identified in F32-ART5. The exomes of F32-ART5 and F32-TEM were compared after excluding (i) genes from highly-variable, multi-gene families (var, rifin and stevor), (ii) positions with coverage lower than 25% of the mean coverage of the parasite line, (iii) single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) found to be mixed in F32-ART5, given that acquired ART-resistance mutation(s) could be expected to be fixed in the sample after 5 years of continuous pressure, (iv) SNPs shared between F32-ART5 and the ART-sensitive 3D7 parasite strain and (v) synonymous SNPs (FIG. 5 ).

This analysis identified eight mutations in seven genes that were subsequently confirmed by Sanger sequencing of PCR products (Table 1). Each gene harbors one mutant codon in F32-ART5 compared to F32-TEM, F32-Tanzania or 3D7 (Table 2). Information on the expression of the genes and the biological function of the proteins are listed in Table 3. Only one of these genes, cysteine protease falcipain 2a (PF3D7_1115700), has previously been associated with in vitro responses to ART¹⁹. To determine when each mutation arose in the F32-ART5 lineage, we analyzed the whole-genome sequences of parasites at various drug-pressure cycles (FIG. 1 ). This analysis showed that the PF3D7_0110400 D56V and PF3D7_1343700 M476I mutations were acquired first, during the steep increase of ART resistance, and remained stable thereafter. Importantly, the appearance of these two mutations is associated with an increase in the ring-stage survival assay (RSA^(0-3h)) survival rate, from less than 0.01% to 12.8%. Subsequent PCR analysis of the PF3D7_1343700 locus detected the M476I mutation after 30 drug-pressure cycles, consistent with the sharp increase in RSA^(0-3h) survival rate observed thereafter. The other SNPs appeared stepwise at a later stage of selection: PF3D7_0213400 (68 cycles); PF3D7_1115700 (98 cycles); PF3D7_1302100, PF3D7_1459600 and PF3D7_1464500 (120 cycles) (Table 2). These data suggest that the PF3D7_1343700 M476I mutation increased the resistance of F32-Tanzania to DHA in the RSA^(0-3h).

To explore whether these mutations are associated with ART resistance in Cambodia, we investigated sequence polymorphism in all seven genes by mining whole-genome or Sanger sequences for 49 culture-adapted parasite isolates collected in 2010-2011 (see Examples). We chose these isolates based on their differential RSA^(0-3h) survival rates (Table 8) and their sequences were compared to those of control parasites lines 3D7, 89F5²⁰ and K1992 (see Examples). Three genes (PF3D7_0110400, PF3D7_0213400 and PF3D7_1302100) encode a wildtype sequence for all parasite isolates. The other four genes show intra-population diversity, with previously reported or novel SNPs (Table 8). PF3D7_1115700 has 11 SNPs that are not associated with RSA^(0-3h) survival rates (P=0.06, Kruskal-Wallis test). PF3D7_1459600 has 6 SNPs that are not associated with survival rates (P=0.65). PF3D7_1464500 has 12 SNPs previously reported in older isolates from Southeast Asia, including the ART-susceptible Dd2 line²¹, probably reflecting a geographic signature. These SNPs also show no significant association with survival rates (P=0.42). Therefore, these six genes were not studied further.

In contrast, PF3D7_1343700 polymorphism shows a significant association with RSA^(0-3h) survival rates (FIG. 2 ). Indeed, RSA^(0-3h) survival rates differ substantially between parasite isolates with wildtype (median 0.17%, range 0.06-0.51%, n=16) or mutant (18.8%, 3.8-58%, n=33) K13-propeller alleles (P<10⁻⁴, Mann-Whitney U test) (Table 8). Four mutant alleles are observed, each harboring a single non-synonymous SNP within a kelch repeat of the C-terminal K13-propeller domain, namely Y493H, R539T, I543T and C580Y located within repeats #2, #3, #3 and #4, respectively. Both the K1992 and the ART-susceptible 89F5 lines carry a wildtype K13-propeller. There are no associations between polymorphisms in the K-13 propeller and those in the other candidate genes (Table 8). Based on these observations and the acquisition of M476I in kelch repeat #2 by F32-ART5, we investigated whether K13-propeller polymorphism is a molecular signature of ART resistance in Cambodia.

Emergence and Spread of Mutant K13-Propeller Alleles in Cambodia

Over the last decade, the prevalence of ART resistance has steadily increased in the western provinces of Cambodia, but not elsewhere in the country². To test whether the spatiotemporal distribution of K13-propeller mutations correlates with that of ART resistance, we sequenced the K13-propeller of archived parasite isolates from Cambodian patients with malaria in 2001-2012 (Table 4). Data from six provinces were compared (n=886): Pailin, Battambang and Pursat in the west where ART-resistance is established^(1, 6, 5, 22), Kratie in the southeast where ART-resistance has increased in recent years², and Preah Vihear in the north and Ratanakiri in the northeast where there was virtually no evidence of ART resistance during this time period². This analysis reveals overall 17 mutant alleles, including three high-frequency (≥5%) alleles (C580Y, R539T and Y493H). The frequency of wildtype sequence decreased significantly over time in all three western provinces, but not in Preah Vihear or Ratanakiri. The frequency of the C580Y allele increased significantly from 2001-2002 to 2011-2012 in Pailin and Battambang, indicating its rapid invasion of the population and near fixation in these areas (FIG. 3 ).

To further investigate the geographic diversity of K13-propeller polymorphism in Cambodia, we extended our sequence analysis to include data from four additional provinces (n=55, Kampong Som, Kampot, Mondulkiri and Oddar Meanchey) in 2011-2012 (Table 4). Although a large number of mutations are observed (FIG. 9 and Table 5), the C580Y allele accounts for 85% (189/222) of all mutant alleles observed in 2011-2012 (FIG. 6 ). This mapping outlines the elevated frequency (74%, 222/300) of parasites harboring a single non-synonymous mutation in the K13-propeller and the geographic disparity of their distribution. Importantly, the frequency distribution of mutant alleles over the various provinces matches that of day 3 positivity in patients treated for malaria with an ACT (Spearman's r=0.99, 95% CI 0.96-0.99, P<0.0001)—considered a suggestive sign of clinical ART resistance (FIG. 7 ).

Relationships Between K13-Propeller Polymorphisms, ART-Resistant Subpopulations and Clinical ART Resistance

To confirm that K13-propeller polymorphism is a molecular marker of clinical ART resistance, we first identified 163 patients from Pursat and Ratanakiri in whom we measured parasite clearance half-lives (range 1.58-11.53 h)⁶ in 2009-2010 and for which parasites were previously assigned to a KH subpopulation (KH1, KH2, KH3, KH4 or KHA) based on ancestry analysis of whole-genome sequence data¹⁵. Thirteen patients with mixed genotypes (a wild-type and one or more mutant K13-propeller alleles) were excluded. Of the remaining 150 patients, 72 carried parasites with a wild-type allele and the others carried parasites with only a single non-synonymous SNP in the K13-propeller: C580Y (n=51), R539T (n=6) and Y493H (n=21) (Table 6). The parasite clearance half-life in patients with wildtype parasites is significantly shorter (median 3.30 h, IQR 2.59-3.95) than those with C580Y (7.19 h, 6.47-8.31, P<10⁻⁶, Mann-Whitney U test), R539T (6.64 h, 6.00-6.72, P<10⁻⁴) or Y493H (6.28 h, 5.37-7.14, P<10⁻⁶) parasites (FIG. 4A). Also, the parasite clearance half-life in patients carrying C580Y parasites is significantly longer than those with Y493H parasites (P=0.007, Mann-Whitney U test). These data indicate that C580Y, R539T and Y493H identify slow-clearing parasites in malaria patients treated with ART.

Since KH2, KH3, KH4 and KHA parasites have longer half-lives than KH1 parasites¹⁵, we hypothesized that allelic variation in the K13-propeller accounts for these differences. Among 150 parasites, 55, 26, 14, 12 and 43 are classified as KH1, KH2, KH3, KH4 and KHA, respectively. Three K13-propeller alleles strongly associate with KH groups: 96% (53/55) of KH1, 96% (25/26) of KH2 and 100% (12/12) of KH4 parasites carry the wildtype, C580Y and Y493H alleles, respectively (Table 6). While KH3 parasites (n=14) carry the wildtype, C580Y and R539T alleles, R539T is not observed in KH1, KH2 or KH4 parasites. As expected, KHA parasites have a mixed allele composition. Importantly, K13-propeller mutations more accurately identify slow-clearing parasites than KH group (FIG. 4B), demonstrating that the association of K13-propeller polymorphism with clinical ART resistance in Cambodia is partially independent of the genetic background of KH subpopulations. Within the KH1 group (n=55), the parasite clearance half-life in patients with wildtype parasites is significantly shorter (n=53, median 2.88 h, IQR 2.52-3.79) than those with Y493H parasites (n=2, median 6.77 h, P=0.02, Mann-Whitney U test). Within the KH3 subpopulation (n=14), the half-life in patients with wildtype parasites is shorter (n=3, median 3.65 h) than those with C580Y (n=7, median 8.73 h, IQR 7.35-9.06, P=0.02) or R539T (n=4, 6.65 h, 6.29-6.80, P=0.03) parasites.

The F32-ART5 lineage acquired a K13-propeller mutation as it developed ART-resistance, as indicated by its ability to survive a pharmacologically-relevant exposure to DHA in the RSA^(0-3h). Genes putatively associated with ART resistance (Pfcrt^(23, 24) PftCtp^(25, 26), Pfmdr1^(8, 27, 28), Pfmrp1²⁷⁻²⁹ and ABC transporters³⁰) or encoding putative targets of ART (PfATPase6^(31, 32) and Pfubcth—the ortholog of P. chabaudi ubp1^(33, 34)) were not mutated during the 5-year selection of F32-ART5, and Pfmdr1 amplification was not observed³⁵⁻⁴⁰. In addition, all candidate ART-resistance genes recently identified using population genetics approaches^(14, 40, 41) remained unaltered in the F32-ART5 lineage, except for PF3D7_1343700 and PF3D7_1459600 located in the linkage-disequilibrium windows identified by Takala-Harrison et al.¹⁶. These findings led us to identify another 17 single K13-propeller mutations in naturally-circulating parasites in Cambodia. Several of these mutations associate strongly with the spatiotemporal distribution of ART resistance in Cambodia, increased parasite survival rates in response to DHA in vitro, and long parasite clearance half-lives in response to ART treatment in vivo. None of the six other genes mutated in F32-ART5 associate with RSA^(0-3h) survival rates in parasite isolates from Cambodia.

K13-propeller polymorphism fulfills the definition of a molecular marker of ART resistance for several reasons: (i) there has been a progressive loss of wildtype parasites in Western Cambodia during the decade of emerging ART resistance in this region; (ii) mutant parasites cluster in Cambodian provinces where ART resistance is well established and are less prevalent where ART resistance is uncommon; (iii) PF3D7_1343700 is located 5.9 kb upstream of the 35-kb locus identified by Cheeseman et al.¹⁴ as being under recent positive selection, and within the region of top-ranked signatures of selection outlined by Takala-Harrison et al.¹⁶; (iv) multiple mutations, all non-synonymous, are present in the K13-propeller, reflecting positive selection rather than a hitchhiking effect or genetic drift; (v) mutations occur in a domain that is highly conserved in P. falciparum, with only one non-synonymous SNP being documented in a single parasite isolate from Africa⁴²; (vi) all polymorphisms we observe in Cambodia are novel and all but one (V568G) occur at positions strictly conserved between Plasmodium species (FIG. 9 and FIG. 10 ), suggesting strong structural and functional constraints on the protein; (vii) the three most-prevalent K13-propeller mutations correlate strongly with RSA^(0-3h) survival rates in vitro and parasite clearance half-lives in vivo at the level of individual parasite isolates and malaria patients, respectively, and (viii) the frequency of mutant alleles correlates strongly with the prevalence of day 3 positivity after ACT treatment at the level of human populations in Cambodia.

Based on homology with other kelch propeller domains, we anticipate that the observed K13-propeller mutations destabilize the domain scaffold and alter its function. The C-terminal portion of PF3D7_1343700 encodes six kelch motifs, which are found in a large number of proteins with diverse cellular functions^(43, 44). Given that the toxicity of ART derivatives principally depends on their pro-oxidant activity, the reported role of some kelch-containing proteins in regulating cytoprotective and protein degradation responses to external stress is particularly intriguing. The K13-propeller shows homology with human KLHL12 and KLHL2 involved in ubiquitin-based protein degradation and KEAP1 involved in cell adaptation to oxidative stress (FIG. 8 ). Obviously, future work is needed to delineate the normal function of K13 and the impact of various mutations. Allele exchange studies in mutant and wildtype parasites may help to define the contribution of K13-propeller polymorphisms on different genetic backgrounds to the RSA^(0-3h) survival rate. Indeed, it is particularly worrying that as few as two mutations, i.e. the K13-propeller M476I and PF3D7_0110400 D56V, were sufficient to confer ART resistance to F32-Tanzania, which has a typical African genetic background. Since Cambodian parasites with mutant K13-propellers display a wide range of RSA^(0-3h) survival rates (3.8%-58%) and parasite clearance half-lives (4.5-11.5 h), further studies are required to identify additional genetic determinants of ART resistance, which may reside in the strongly-selected regions recently identified^(16, 14). In this context, analyzing the RSA^(0-3h) survival rates as a quantitative trait among parasites harboring the same K13-propeller mutation could help to identify additional genetic loci involved in ART resistance.

In summary, K13-propeller polymorphism is a useful molecular marker for tracking the emergence and spread of ART-resistant P. falciparum.

Methods of Genotyping a Plasmodium

The invention encompasses methods for genotyping a plasmodium, particularly Plasmodium falciparum. The method, performed in vitro, comprises the step of detecting the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein, in a biological sample. Said sample has been previously obtained from a patient and is in particular a blood sample. In a preferred embodiment, the method comprises providing a biological sample containing a plasmodium and detecting the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein in the sample. The wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein is detected by routine techniques in the art. For example, the techniques described in the Examples, or elsewhere herein, can be used.

The biological sample is advantageously a blood sample.

The wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid can be detected by numerous techniques known in the art, such as sequencing, hybridization, or amplification assays.

Within the context of this invention, a “wild-type P. falciparum K-13 propeller nucleic acid” means a nucleic acid having the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 or a variant nucleic acid sequence that encodes the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. Within the context of this invention, a “wild-type P. falciparum K-13 propeller protein” means a protein having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. Other wild-type plasmodium K-13 propeller proteins are shown in FIG. 10 .

Within the context of this invention, a “mutant P. falciparum K-13 propeller nucleic acid” is synonymous with a “mutated P. falciparum K-13 propeller nucleic acid” and means a nucleic acid sequence having one or more difference from the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 that results in a difference of at least one amino acid from the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. Preferably a mutant P. falciparum K13-propeller nucleic acid according to the invention harbors a single non-synonymous Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) within a kelch repeat of the carboxy-terminal K13-propeller domain. More preferably the single non-synonymous SNP is one of the following SNPs:

-   -   F446I ttt/att     -   G449A ggt/gct     -   N458Y aat/tat     -   C469Y tgc/tac     -   W470stop tgg/tga     -   A481V gct/gtt     -   Y493H tac/cac     -   K503N aag/aat     -   S522C agt/tgt     -   V534A gtt/gct     -   R539T aga/aca     -   I543T att/act     -   G548D ggc/gac     -   P553L ccg/ctg     -   V555A gta/gca     -   A557S gca/tca     -   R561H cgt/cat     -   K563R aaa/aga     -   V568G gtg/ggg     -   P574L cct/ctt     -   A578S gct/tct     -   C580Y tgt/tat     -   F583L ttt/tta/g     -   D584V gat/gtt     -   V589I gtc/atc     -   Q613E caa/gaaD641G gat/ggt

Within the context of this invention, a “mutant P. falciparum K-13 propeller protein” is synonymous with a “mutated P. falciparum K-13 propeller protein” and means an amino acid sequence having one or more difference from the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. The one or more difference from the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2 is one or more mutant amino acid within a kelch repeat of the carboxy-terminal K13-propeller domain of the P. falciparum K-13 propeller protein.

Preferred mutant P. falciparum K-13 propeller proteins have one or more of the mutations shown in FIG. 9 or 13 .

More preferred mutant P. falciparum K-13 propeller proteins have a single mutation chosen among the mutations shown in FIG. 9 or 13 .

These mutations are also defined in accordance with the list of SNPs provided above.

In various embodiments, the method comprises detecting the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller protein in the biological sample. This can be performed by using specific antibodies that discriminate between wild-type and mutant K-13 propeller proteins. These antibodies can be contacted with patient samples and the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller proteins can be determined by detecting the presence or absence of an immunological reaction. Preferably, the method comprises an ELISA assay.

In a preferred embodiment, the method comprises providing a sample containing a plasmodium and detecting the presence of a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein in the sample. Preferably, the presence of a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid in the sample is detected by sequencing or by PCR.

Preferably, the plasmodium is selected from Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale curtisi, Plasmodium ovale wallikeri, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium brasilianum, Plasmodium cynomolgi, Plasmodium cynomolgi bastianellii, Plasmodium inui, Plasmodium rhodiani, Plasmodium schweitzi, Plasmodium semiovale, Plasmodium simium, Plasmodium berghei, Plasmodium yoelii, and Plasmodium chabaudi.

The invention encompasses methods for genotyping a Plasmodium. Preferably, the method discriminates between artemisinin-susceptible Plasmodium (with a wild-type K13 allele) from artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium (with a mutant K13 allele).

The invention encompasses in vitro methods for detecting at least one mutation in the K13 propeller domain nucleic acid sequence. The invention encompasses methods for detecting in a biological sample containing Plasmodium the presence of a mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid comprising contacting K13 propeller nucleic acid with a probe specific for a mutant K13 propeller and detecting the binding of the probe to the K13 propeller nucleic acid. Binding of the probe with the K13 propeller nucleic acid can be detected by routine techniques in the art. For example, any of the techniques described herein can be used. Exemplary mutants and probes are depicted in Example 15 and FIG. 13 . Preferably, probes are at least 15, 20, 25, or 30 bp in size. Most preferably, they are 15-20, 15-25, 15-30, 20-25, or 25-30 nt in size.

In some embodiments, the probe is bound to a fluorescent bead. In some embodiments, the method comprises binding the probe to the mutant K13 propeller domain nucleic acid and detecting the bound K13 propeller domain nucleic acid with a probe that binds to the bound K13 propeller domain nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the K13 propeller nucleic acid is amplified prior to detection.

In one embodiment, the nucleic acids of a plasmodium are subjected to an amplification of the K13 propeller domain nucleic acid sequence. In various embodiments, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more fragments of the K13 propeller domain nucleic acid sequence are amplified. The amplified fragments can be from at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, or 200 nt in size to at least 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 250, or 300 nt in size. Primers for this amplification can be any of the primers set forth herein.

Preferably, the amplification method is PCR, most preferably real-time PCR, PCR-HRM (High-Resolution DNA Melting) (see Andriantsoanirina et al. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 78: 165 (2009)), or PCR coupled to ligase detection reaction based on fluorescent microsphere (Luminex® microspheres). This last method permits to perform a multiplex assay to detect several mutated K13 propeller alleles at the same time.

Other preferred amplification methods include the ligase chain reaction (LCR) (e.g., Wu and Wallace, Genomics 4, 560 (1989), Landegren et al., Science 241, 1077 (1988) and Barringer et al. Gene 89:117 (1990)), transcription amplification (Kwoh et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86, 1173 (1989) and WO88/10315), self-sustained sequence replication (Guatelli et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 87, 1874 (1990) and WO90/06995), selective amplification of target polynucleotide sequences (U.S. Pat. No. 6,410,276), and nucleic acid based sequence amplification (NABSA) (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,130,238, 5,409,818, 5,554,517, and 6,063,603). Other amplification methods that may be used are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,242,794, 5,494,810, 4,988,617 and 6,582,938. The above references regarding amplification of nucleic acids are specifically incorporated by reference with respect to the disclosure therein of the specific reaction conditions used for amplification in each of the amplification methods.

In one embodiment, the method comprises providing Plasmodium nucleic acid, PCR amplifying at least one fragment of the K13 propeller domain nucleic acid sequence in the Plasmodium nucleic acid, and detecting at least one mutation in the K13 propeller domain nucleic acid sequence. The invention encompasses methods for detecting in a biological sample containing Plasmodium the presence of a mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid comprising amplifying the mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid by PCR reaction, and contacting the amplified nucleic acid with a probe specific for a mutant K13 propeller. Exemplary mutants and probes are depicted in Example 15 and FIG. 13 . Preferably, probes are at least 15, 20, 25, or 30 bp in size.

In one embodiment, the mutation is detected by High-Resolution DNA Melting. In various embodiments, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more fragments of the K13 propeller domain nucleic acid sequence are amplified and assessed by High-Resolution DNA Melting for the presence of mutations. Most preferably, 6 fragments of the K13 propeller domain nucleic acid sequence are amplified and assessed by High-Resolution DNA Melting for the presence of mutations.

In one embodiment, the method comprises providing a biological sample containing DNA of Plasmodium; optionally extracting DNA from the biological sample; contacting the DNA of Plasmodium with at least one pair of primers which hybridize specifically with the K13 propeller nucleic acid, preferably at a distance ranging from 100 to 300 bp, and performing a PCR reaction, preferably in the presence of intercalating dye. Preferably, the amplification products are subjected to a melting step and a melting profile of the amplification products is generated. The melting step can allow the determination of the presence of a mutant allele or a wild type allele by analyzing the melting profile of the amplification products.

In one embodiment, the mutation is detected by specific probes that are designed in order to detect Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP) in the K13 propeller domain. In one embodiment, allele-specific probes are bound to a solid substrate, preferably beads, most preferably fluorescent beads. The probes can be specific for a mutation in the K13 propeller domain or for the wild-type K13 propeller domain. The probes can bind to (i.e., capture) the mutant or wild-type K13 propeller domain nucleic acid. The bound (i.e., captured) K13 propeller domain nucleic acid can then be detected with a probe that binds to the bound (i.e., captured) K13 propeller domain nucleic acid. Preferably, the assay is based on fluorescent microspheres (Luminex® microspheres). Exemplary mutants and probes are depicted in Example 15 and FIG. 13 . Preferably, probes are at least 15, 20, 25, or 30 bp in size. Preferably, the probe spans one of the mutations listed in Example 15 and FIG. 13 .

In various embodiments, at least one fragment of the K13 propeller domain nucleic acid sequence is amplified using at least a primer having a nucleotide sequence selected from SEQ ID NOs 15-26. Preferably, one or more primer sets used for amplification are selected from the following primer pairs:

Pair PCR1:

5′ AGGTGGATTTGATGGTGTAGAAT 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:15)

5′ CATACACCTCAGTTTCAAATAAAGC 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:16)

Pair PCR2:

5′ AATTTCTTATACGTTTTTGGTGGTAA 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:17)

5′ CTCTACCCATGCTTTCATACGAT 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:18)

Pair PCR3

5′ GGATATGATGGCTCTTCTATTATACCG 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:19)

5′ ACTTCAATAGAATTTAATCTCTCACCA 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:20)

Pair PCR4

5′ ATGTCATTGGTGGAACTAATGGT 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:21)

5′ TTAAATGGTTGATATTGTTCAACG 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:22)

Pair PCR5

5′ TTCAGGAGCAGCTTTTAATTACC 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:23)

5′ CTGGTGAAAAGAAATGACATGAA 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:24)

Pair PCR6

5′ CCTTGTTGAAAGAAGCAGAATTT 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:25)

5′ ATTCAATACAGCACTTCCAAAATAA 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:26).

In various embodiments, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more fragments of the K13 propeller domain nucleic acid sequence are amplified and assessed for the presence of mutations. Most preferably, 6 fragments of the K13 propeller domain nucleic acid sequence are amplified and assessed by High-Resolution DNA Melting for the presence of mutations. Preferably, the mutation detected is selected from the following mutations (from/to):

-   -   F446I ttt/att     -   G449A ggt/gct     -   N458Y aat/tat     -   C469Y tgc/tac     -   W470stop tgg/tga     -   A481V gct/gtt     -   Y493H tac/cac     -   K503N aag/aat     -   S522C agt/tgt     -   V534A gtt/gct     -   R539T aga/aca     -   I543T att/act     -   G548D ggc/gac     -   P553L ccg/ctg     -   V555A gta/gca     -   A557S gca/tca     -   R561H cgt/cat     -   K563R aaa/aga     -   V568G gtg/ggg     -   P574L cct/ctt     -   A578S gct/tct     -   C580Y tgt/tat     -   F583L ttt/tta/g     -   D584V gat/gtt     -   V589I gtc/atc     -   Q613E caa/gaa     -   D641G gat/ggt.

Most preferably, the mutation detected is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or all of the following mutations:

-   -   F446I ttt/att     -   G449A ggt/gct     -   N458Y aat/tat     -   A481V gct/gtt     -   Y493H tac/cac     -   K503N aag/aat     -   R539T aga/aca     -   I543T att/act     -   P553L ccg/ctg     -   A557S gca/tca     -   R561H cgt/cat     -   V568G gtg/ggg     -   P574L cct/ctt     -   A578S gct/tct     -   C580Y tgt/tat

Methods of Monitoring ART-Resistance

The invention encompasses methods for monitoring ART-resistance of a Plasmodium. In a preferred embodiment, the method comprises growing a Plasmodium, contacting the Plasmodium with an artemisinin, and detecting a mutation in a K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein. Preferably, the Plasmodium is grown in vitro, preferably as in van Schalkwyk et al. Malaria Journal 2013, 12:320, which is hereby incorporated by reference.

In one embodiment, the method comprises growing a Plasmodium, contacting the Plasmodium with an artemisinin, and sequencing a K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein at multiple time points.

In one embodiment, the method comprising providing multiple samples of Plasmodium, from a single or multiple geographic areas, and detecting a mutation in a K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein.

Methods of Detecting a Plasmodium Infection

The invention encompasses methods for the detection of a Plasmodium infection and diagnosis of the infection in an infected patient. Patients can be diagnosed by providing a cell sample from a patient. In a preferred embodiment, the method comprises providing a cell sample from a patient and detecting the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein in the cell sample.

The wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein is detected by routine techniques in the art. For example, the any of the techniques described herein can be used.

The cell sample can be any cell sample obtained from patient that contains Plasmodium. Preferably, the cell sample is generated by drawing blood. The cell sample is preferably a blood sample. The blood sample can be further processed to culture the Plasmodium in the sample in vitro. For example, the techniques described in van Schalkwyk et al. Malaria Journal 2013, 12:320 can be used.

In one embodiment, the method comprises providing a blood sample from patient; optionally culture the Plasmodium in the sample in vitro, and detecting the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein in the cell sample.

In one embodiment, the method comprises providing a blood sample from a patient and detecting the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein in the sample. Preferably, the presence of a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid in the sample is detected by sequencing or by PCR.

Preferably, nucleic acid sequencing is used to detect the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid in the cell sample. Any sequencing method known in the art can be employed. As used herein, the term “sequencing” is used in a broad sense and refers to any technique known by the skilled person including but not limited to Sanger dideoxy termination sequencing, whole-genome sequencing, sequencing by hybridization, pyrosequencing, capillary electrophoresis, cycle sequencing, single-base extension sequencing, solid-phase sequencing, high-throughput sequencing, massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS), sequencing by reversible dye terminator, paired-end sequencing, near-term sequencing, exonuclease sequencing, sequencing by ligation, short-read sequencing, single-molecule sequencing, sequencing-by-synthesis, real-time sequencing, reverse-terminator sequencing, nanopore sequencing, 454 sequencing, Solexa Genome Analyzer sequencing, SOLiD® sequencing, MS-PET sequencing, mass spectrometry, and a combination thereof. In specific embodiments, the method of the invention is adapted to run on ABI PRISM® 377 DNA Sequencer, an ABI PRISM® 310, 3100, 3100-Avant, 3730, or 3730x1 Genetic Analyzer, an ABI PRISM® 3700 DNA Analyzer, or an Applied Biosystems SOLiD™ System (all from Applied Biosystems), a Genome Sequencer 20 System (Roche Applied Science).

Preferably, the K-13 propeller in the Plasmodium of the cell sample has one or more of the mutations shown in FIG. 9 or 13 or in Table 7.

In one embodiment, the method comprises detecting any of the nucleic acid sequences encoding any of the mutations shown in FIG. 9 or 13 or in Table 7. These sequences can be specifically detected by numerous techniques known in the art, such as sequencing, hybridization, or amplification assays.

For example, the amplification method can be RCA, MDA, NASBA, TMA, SDA, LCR, b-DNA, PCR (all forms including RT-PCR), RAM, LAMP, ICAN, SPIA, QB-replicase, or Invader. A preferred amplification method is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. See, e.g., PCR Technology: Principles and Applications for DNA Amplification (Ed. H. A. Erlich, Freeman Press, NY, N.Y., 1992); PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications (Eds. Iinis, et al., Academic Press, San Diego, Calif., 1990); Mattila et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 19, 4967 (1991); Eckert et al., PCR Methods and Applications 1, 17 (1991); PCR (Eds. McPherson et al., IRL Press, Oxford); and U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,683,202, 4,683,195, 4,800,159 4,965,188, and 5,333,675. More preferred PCR methods is real-time PCR, PCR-HRM (High-Resolution DNA Melting) (see Andriantsoanirina et al. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 78: 165 (2009)) and PCR coupled to ligase detection reaction based on fluorescent microsphere (Luminex® microspheres). This last method permits to perform a multiplex assay to detect several mutated K13 propeller alleles in a same time.

Other preferred amplification methods include the ligase chain reaction (LCR) (e.g., Wu and Wallace, Genomics 4, 560 (1989), Landegren et al., Science 241, 1077 (1988) and Barringer et al. Gene 89:117 (1990)), transcription amplification (Kwoh et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86, 1173 (1989) and WO88/10315), self-sustained sequence replication (Guatelli et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 87, 1874 (1990) and WO90/06995), selective amplification of target polynucleotide sequences (U.S. Pat. No. 6,410,276), and nucleic acid based sequence amplification (NABSA) (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,130,238, 5,409,818, 5,554,517, and 6,063,603). Other amplification methods that may be used are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,242,794, 5,494,810, 4,988,617 and 6,582,938. The above references regarding amplification of nucleic acids are specifically incorporated by reference with respect to the disclosure therein of the specific reaction conditions used for amplification in each of the amplification methods.

In a preferred embodiment, at least one of the following primers is used for amplification:

forward K13-1 5′-cggagtgaccaaatctggga-3′ (SEQ ID NO:9);

reverse K13-4 5′-gggaatctggtggtaacagc-3′ (SEQ ID NO:10);

forward K13-2 5′-cgccagcattgttgactaat-3′ (SEQ ID NO:11);

reverse K13-3 5′-gcggaagtagtagcgagaat-3′ (SEQ ID NO:12);

forward 5′-gccaagctgccattcatttg-3′ (SEQ ID NO:13); and

reverse 5′-gccttgttgaaagaagcaga-3′ (SEQ ID NO:14).

The nucleic acid can be RNA or DNA. In one embodiment, RNA is extracted and reverse-transcribed into cDNA. Amplification or sequencing is then performed on the cDNA.

Thus, the method can comprise isolating RNA from a sample from a patient, reverse-transcribing the RNA into cDNA, amplifying or sequencing the cDNA, and determining the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid.

In various embodiments, the method comprises detecting the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller protein in the cell sample. This can be performed by using specific antibodies that discriminate between wild-type and mutant K-13 propeller proteins. These antibodies can be contacted with patient samples and the presence or absence of a wild-type or mutated K-13 propeller proteins can be determined by detecting the presence or absence of an immunological reaction. Preferably, the method comprises an ELISA assay.

Antibodies can be synthetic, monoclonal, or polyclonal and can be made by techniques well known in the art. Such antibodies specifically bind via the antigen-binding sites of the antibody (as opposed to non-specific binding). K-13 propeller polypeptides, fragments, variants, fusion proteins, etc., can be employed as immunogens in producing antibodies immunoreactive therewith. More specifically, the polypeptides, fragment, variants, fusion proteins, etc. contain antigenic determinants or epitopes that elicit the formation of antibodies.

These antigenic determinants or epitopes can be either linear or conformational (discontinuous). Linear epitopes are composed of a single section of amino acids of the polypeptide, while conformational or discontinuous epitopes are composed of amino acids sections from different regions of the polypeptide chain that are brought into close proximity upon protein folding (C. A. Janeway, Jr. and P. Travers, Immuno Biology 3:9 (Garland Publishing Inc., 2nd ed. 1996)). Because folded proteins have complex surfaces, the number of epitopes available is quite numerous; however, due to the conformation of the protein and steric hinderances, the number of antibodies that actually bind to the epitopes is less than the number of available epitopes (C. A. Janeway, Jr. and P. Travers, Immuno Biology 2:14 (Garland Publishing Inc., 2nd ed. 1996)). Epitopes can be identified by any of the methods known in the art. Both polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies can be prepared by conventional techniques.

K-13 propeller peptides based on the amino acid sequence of wild-type and mutant K-13 propeller proteins can be utilized to prepare antibodies that specifically bind to wild-type and/or mutant K-13 propeller. The term “antibodies” is meant to include polyclonal antibodies, monoclonal antibodies, fragments thereof, such as F(ab′)2 and Fab fragments, single-chain variable fragments (scFvs), single-domain antibody fragments (VHHs or Nanobodies), bivalent antibody fragments (diabodies), as well as any recombinantly and synthetically produced binding partners.

Antibodies are defined to be specifically binding if they bind to wild-type and/or mutant K-13 propeller polypeptide with a Ka of greater than or equal to about 107 M−1. Affinities of binding partners or antibodies can be readily determined using conventional techniques, for example those described by Scatchard et al., Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 51:660 (1949).

Polyclonal antibodies can be readily generated from a variety of sources, for example, horses, cows, goats, sheep, dogs, chickens, rabbits, mice, or rats, using procedures that are well known in the art. In general, purified K-13 propeller or a peptide based on the amino acid sequence of K-13 propeller that is appropriately conjugated is administered to the host animal typically through parenteral injection. The immunogenicity of K-13 propeller can be enhanced through the use of an adjuvant, for example, Freund's complete or incomplete adjuvant. Following booster immunizations, small samples of serum are collected and tested for reactivity to K-13 propeller polypeptide. Examples of various assays useful for such determination include those described in Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual, Harlow and Lane (eds.), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1988; as well as procedures, such as countercurrent immuno-electrophoresis (CIEP), radioimmunoassay, radio-immunoprecipitation, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), dot blot assays, and sandwich assays. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,376,110 and 4,486,530.

Monoclonal antibodies can be readily prepared using well known procedures. See, for example, the procedures described in U.S. Pat. Nos. RE 32,011, 4,902,614, 4,543,439, and 4,411,993; Monoclonal Antibodies, Hybridomas: A New Dimension in Biological Analyses, Plenum Press, Kennett, McKeam, and Bechtol (eds.), 1980.

For example, the host animals, such as mice, can be injected intraperitoneally at least once and preferably at least twice at about 3 week intervals with isolated and purified wild-type or mutant K-13 propeller protein or conjugated K-13 propeller peptide, optionally in the presence of adjuvant. Mouse sera are then assayed by conventional dot blot technique or antibody capture (ABC) to determine which animal is best to fuse. Approximately two to three weeks later, the mice are given an intravenous boost of protein or peptide. Mice are later sacrificed and spleen cells fused with commercially available myeloma cells, such as Ag8.653 (ATCC), following established protocols. Briefly, the myeloma cells are washed several times in media and fused to mouse spleen cells at a ratio of about three spleen cells to one myeloma cell. The fusing agent can be any suitable agent used in the art, for example, polyethylene glycol (PEG). Fusion is plated out into plates containing media that allows for the selective growth of the fused cells. The fused cells can then be allowed to grow for approximately eight days. Supernatants from resultant hybridomas are collected and added to a plate that is first coated with goat anti-mouse Ig. Following washes, a label, such as a labeled K-13 propeller polypeptide, is added to each well followed by incubation. Positive wells can be subsequently detected. Positive clones can be grown in bulk culture and supernatants are subsequently purified over a Protein A column (Pharmacia).

The monoclonal antibodies of the invention can be produced using alternative techniques, such as those described by Alting-Mees et al., “Monoclonal Antibody Expression Libraries: A Rapid Alternative to Hybridomas”, Strategies in Molecular Biology 3:1-9 (1990), which is incorporated herein by reference. Similarly, binding partners can be constructed using recombinant DNA techniques to incorporate the variable regions of a gene that encodes a specific binding antibody. Such a technique is described in Larrick et al., Biotechnology, 7:394 (1989).

Antigen-binding fragments of such antibodies, which can be produced by conventional techniques, are also encompassed by the present invention. Examples of such fragments include, but are not limited to, Fab and F(ab′)2 fragments.

Antibody fragments and derivatives produced by genetic engineering techniques are also provided.

The monoclonal antibodies of the present invention include chimeric antibodies, e.g., humanized versions of murine monoclonal antibodies. Such humanized antibodies can be prepared by known techniques, and offer the advantage of reduced immunogenicity when the antibodies are administered to humans. In one embodiment, a humanized monoclonal antibody comprises the variable region of a murine antibody (or just the antigen binding site thereof) and a constant region derived from a human antibody. Alternatively, a humanized antibody fragment can comprise the antigen binding site of a murine monoclonal antibody and a variable region fragment (lacking the antigen-binding site) derived from a human antibody. Procedures for the production of chimeric and further engineered monoclonal antibodies include those described in Riechmann et al. (Nature 332:323, 1988), Liu et al. (PNAS 84:3439, 1987), Larrick et al. (Bio/Technology 7:934, 1989), and Winter and Harris (TIPS 14:139, May, 1993). Procedures to generate antibodies transgenically can be found in GB 2,272,440, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,569,825 and 5,545,806.

Antibodies produced by genetic engineering methods, such as chimeric and humanized monoclonal antibodies, comprising both human and non-human portions, which can be made using standard recombinant DNA techniques, can be used. Such chimeric and humanized monoclonal antibodies can be produced by genetic engineering using standard DNA techniques known in the art, for example using methods described in Robinson et al. International Publication No. WO 87/02671; Akira, et al. European Patent Application 0184187; Taniguchi, M., European Patent Application 0171496; Morrison et al. European Patent Application 0173494; Neuberger et al. PCT International Publication No. WO 86/01533; Cabilly et al. U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567; Cabilly et al. European Patent Application 0125023; Better et al., Science 240:1041 1043, 1988; Liu et al., PNAS 84:3439 3443, 1987; Liu et al., J. Immunol. 139:3521 3526, 1987; Sun et al. PNAS 84:214 218, 1987; Nishimura et al., Canc. Res. 47:999 1005, 1987; Wood et al., Nature 314:446 449, 1985; and Shaw et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 80:1553 1559, 1988); Morrison, S. L., Science 229:1202 1207, 1985; Oi et al., BioTechniques 4:214, 1986; Winter U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,539; Jones et al., Nature 321:552 525, 1986; Verhoeyan et al., Science 239:1534, 1988; and Beidler et al., J. Immunol. 141:4053 4060, 1988.

In connection with synthetic and semi-synthetic antibodies, such terms are intended to cover but are not limited to antibody fragments, isotype switched antibodies, humanized antibodies (e.g., mouse-human, human-mouse), hybrids, antibodies having plural specificities, and fully synthetic antibody-like molecules.

For therapeutic applications, “human” monoclonal antibodies having human constant and variable regions are often preferred so as to minimize the immune response of a patient against the antibody. Such antibodies can be generated by immunizing transgenic animals which contain human immunoglobulin genes. See Jakobovits et al. Ann NY Acad Sci 764:525-535 (1995).

Human monoclonal antibodies against K-13 propeller polypeptides can also be prepared by constructing a combinatorial immunoglobulin library, such as a Fab phage display library or a scFv phage display library, using immunoglobulin light chain and heavy chain cDNAs prepared from mRNA derived from lymphocytes of a subject. See, e.g., McCafferty et al. PCT publication WO 92/01047; Marks et al. (1991) J. Mol. Biol. 222:581 597; and Griffths et al. (1993) EMBO J 12:725 734. In addition, a combinatorial library of antibody variable regions can be generated by mutating a known human antibody. For example, a variable region of a human antibody known to bind K-13 propeller, can be mutated, by for example using randomly altered mutagenized oligonucleotides, to generate a library of mutated variable regions which can then be screened to bind to K-13 propeller. Methods of inducing random mutagenesis within the CDR regions of immunoglobin heavy and/or light chains, methods of crossing randomized heavy and light chains to form pairings and screening methods can be found in, for example, Barbas et al. PCT publication WO 96/07754; Barbas et al. (1992) Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA 89:4457 4461.

An immunoglobulin library can be expressed by a population of display packages, preferably derived from filamentous phage, to form an antibody display library. Examples of methods and reagents particularly amenable for use in generating antibody display library can be found in, for example, Ladner et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,409; Kang et al. PCT publication WO 92/18619; Dower et al. PCT publication WO 91/17271; Winter et al. PCT publication WO 92/20791; Markland et al. PCT publication WO 92/15679; Breitling et al. PCT publication WO 93/01288; McCafferty et al. PCT publication WO 92/01047; Garrard et al. PCT publication WO 92/09690; Ladner et al. PCT publication WO 90/02809; Fuchs et al. (1991) Bio/Technology 9:1370 1372; Hay et al. (1992) Hum Antibod Hybridomas 3:81 85; Huse et al. (1989) Science 246:1275 1281; Griffths et al. (1993) supra; Hawkins et al. (1992) J Mol Biol 226:889 896; Clackson et al. (1991) Nature 352:624 628; Gram et al. (1992) PNAS 89:3576 3580; Garrad et al. (1991) Bio/Technology 9:1373 1377; Hoogenboom et al. (1991) Nuc Acid Res 19:4133 4137; and Barbas et al. (1991) PNAS 88:7978 7982. Once displayed on the surface of a display package (e.g., filamentous phage), the antibody library is screened to identify and isolate packages that express an antibody that binds a K-13 propeller polypeptide. In a preferred embodiment, the primary screening of the library involves panning with an immobilized K-13 propeller polypeptide and display packages expressing antibodies that bind immobilized K-13 propeller polypeptide are selected.

In a preferred embodiment, the method comprises detecting a plasmodium infection. The method can further comprise determining whether the plasmodium has a wild-type or mutant K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein sequence.

Methods of Treating a Plasmodium Infection

The invention encompasses methods for treating a plasmodium infection, In one embodiment, the method comprises determining whether a patient is infected by a plasmodium containing a wild-type or mutant K-13 propeller nucleic acid or protein sequence and adjusting the anti-parasitic treatment based on whether patient is infected by a plasmodium containing a wild-type or mutant K-13 propeller.

In a preferred embodiment, if the patient is infected by a plasmodium containing a wild-type K-13 propeller, the patient is treated with an artemisinin derivative.

In a preferred embodiment, if the patient is infected by a plasmodium containing a mutant K-13 propeller, the patient is treated with an anti-parasitic treatment without an artemisinin, preferably with a malarial drug selected among quinine, chloroquine and mefloquine.

In another embodiment, if the patient is infected by a plasmodium containing a mutant K-13 propeller, the patient is treated with an artemisinin derivative for a period longer than the routinely-used period.

The invention also concerns artemisinin derivative for use in the treatment of patients infected with Plasmodium having a wild-type K-13 propeller, wherein an in vitro step of detecting whether Plasmodium contains a wild-type K-13 propeller is performed on a biological sample previously obtained from said patient

The invention further relates to artemisinin derivative for use in the treatment of patients infected with Plasmodium having a mutated K-13 propeller, wherein an in vitro step of detecting whether Plasmodium contains a mutated K-13 propeller is performed on a biological sample previously obtained from said patient and wherein the administration regime and/or the administered doses of artemisinin is(are) extended over time and/or doses are higher with respect to regime, respectively doses applied to infection by Plasmodium that contains a wild-type K-13 propeller.

The invention in addition concerns quinine, chloroquinine or mefloquine for use in the treatment of patients infected with Plasmodium having a mutated K-13 propeller, wherein an in vitro step of detecting whether Plasmodium contains a mutated K-13 propeller is performed on a biological sample previously obtained from said patient.

Accordingly, using said drugs in accordance with the infection's profile first encompasses the step of detecting and genotyping the Plasmodium infection as provided in the present invention in accordance with the various embodiments to determine whether Plasmodium carries a wild-type K-13 propeller or rather a mutated K-13 propeller.

Kits for Genotyping a Plasmodium

The invention encompasses kits for genotyping a plasmodium or for detecting a plasmodium infection. Preferably, the kit contains primers for the amplification of a K-13 propeller nucleic acid. The kit can contain reagents for the detection of the amplified product. The kit can contain any primer or any combination of primers set forth herein. The kit can contain at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, or more of the primers set forth herein. In one embodiment, the kit comprises at least one pair of primers which hybridize specifically with the K13 propeller nucleic acid at a distance ranging from 100 to 300 bp. In a preferred embodiment of the kit, the at least one pair of primers which hybridize specifically with the K13 propeller nucleic acid at a distance ranging from 100 to 300 bp surrounds at least one single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP).

Preferably, the kit contains a probe for detecting a K-13 propeller nucleic acid, particularly an amplified K-13 propeller nucleic acid. Preferably, the probe is labeled with a fluorescent or enzymatic label.

In one embodiment, the kit specifically detects a mutant K-13 propeller nucleic acid, particularly one encoding a Y493H, R539T, I543T, or C580Y allele. In one embodiment, the kit specifically detects a wild-type K-13 propeller nucleic acid.

In a preferred embodiment, the kit comprises at least one of the following primers:

5′-cggagtgaccaaatctggga-3′ (SEQ ID NO:9);

5′-gggaatctggtggtaacagc-3′ (SEQ ID NO:10);

5′-cgccagcattgttgactaat-3′ (SEQ ID NO:11); and

5′-gcggaagtagtagcgagaat-3′ (SEQ ID NO:12).

5′-gccaagctgccattcatttg-3′ (SEQ ID NO:13); and

5′-gccttgttgaaagaagcaga-3′ (SEQ ID NO:14).

In some embodiments, the kit detects a mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid encoding a F446I, N458Y, C469Y, Y493H, K503N, R539T, I543T, P553L, P574L, A578S, C580Y, and D584V allele.

In some embodiments, the kit detects a mutant K13 propeller nucleic acid encoding a F446I, G449A, N458Y, C469Y, W470stop, A481V, Y493H, K503N, S522C, V534A, R539T, I543T, G548D, P553L, V555A, A557S, R561H, K563R, V568G, P574L, A578S, C580Y, F583L, D584V, V589I, Q613E, and D641G allele.

In some embodiments, the kit comprises at least one of the following pairs of primers:

Pair PCR1

5′ AGGTGGATTTGATGGTGTAGAAT 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:15)

5′ CATACACCTCAGTTTCAAATAAAGC 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:16)

Pair PCR2:

5′ AATTTCTTATACGTTTTTGGTGGTAA 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:17)

5′ CTCTACCCATGCTTTCATACGAT 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:18)

Pair PCR3

5′ GGATATGATGGCTCTTCTATTATACCG 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:19)

5′ ACTTCAATAGAATTTAATCTCTCACCA 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:20)

Pair PCR4

5′ ATGTCATTGGTGGAACTAATGGT 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:21)

5′ TTAAATGGTTGATATTGTTCAACG 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:22)

Pair PCR5

5′ TTCAGGAGCAGCTTTTAATTACC 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:23)

5′ CTGGTGAAAAGAAATGACATGAA 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:24)

Pair PCR6

5′ CCTTGTTGAAAGAAGCAGAATTT 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:25)

5′ ATTCAATACAGCACTTCCAAAATAA 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:26) In some embodiments, the kit comprises at least one probe hybridizing with one of the following SNP:

-   -   F446I ttt/att     -   G449A ggt/gct     -   N458Y aat/tat     -   C469Y tgc/tac     -   W470stop tgg/tga     -   A481V gct/gtt     -   Y493H tac/cac     -   K503N aag/aat     -   S522C agt/tgt     -   V534A gtt/gct     -   R539T aga/aca     -   I543T att/act     -   G548D ggc/gac     -   P553L ccg/ctg     -   V555A gta/gca     -   A557S gca/tca     -   R561H cgt/cat     -   K563R aaa/aga     -   V568G gtg/ggg     -   P574L cct/ctt     -   A578S gct/tct     -   C580Y tgt/tat     -   F583L ttt/tta/g     -   D584V gat/gtt     -   V589I gtc/atc     -   Q613E caa/gaa     -   D641G gat/ggt.

Methods of Screening New Malarial Drugs

The invention encompasses methods for screening new malarial drugs effective for the treatment of patients infected by an ART-resistant Plasmodium. In one embodiment, the method comprises the following steps:

-   -   genotyping a Plasmodium in a biological sample from a patient         infected by Plasmodium according to the invention;     -   measuring the parasite clearance half-life and/or survival rates         of the Plasmodium, if the Plasmodium infecting the patient has a         mutant K13-propeller allele;     -   contacting the new drug to be tested with the biological sample,         if the Plasmodium infecting the patient has a mutant         K13-propeller allele;     -   measuring the parasite clearance half-life and/or survival rate         of the Plasmodium in the RSA_(0-3h) after administration of the         drug;         selecting the drug as a malarial drug effective for the         treatment of patients infected by an ART-resistant Plasmodium,         if the parasite clearance half-life and/or the survival rates of         the Plasmodium is diminished after administration of the drug.         In another embodiment, the method further comprises         administrating the drug to be tested to the patient, if the         Plasmodium infecting the patient has a mutant K13-propeller         allele.

REFERENCES

-   1. Dondorp, A. M. et al. Artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium     falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 361, 455-67 (2009). -   2. World Health Organization. in WHO publications (ed. Press, W.)     (2011-2013). -   3. Mita, T. et al. Limited geographical origin and global spread of     sulfadoxine-resistant dhps alleles in Plasmodium falciparum     populations. J Infect Dis 204, 1980-8 (2011). -   4. Roper, C. et al. Intercontinental spread of     pyrimethamine-resistant malaria. Science 305, 1124 (2004). -   5. Wootton, J. C. et al. Genetic diversity and chloroquine selective     sweeps in Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 418, 320-3 (2002). -   6. Amaratunga, C. et al. Artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum     in Pursat province, western Cambodia: a parasite clearance rate     study. Lancet Infect Dis 12, 851-8 (2012). -   7. Kyaw, M. P. et al. Reduced susceptibility of Plasmodium     falciparum to artesunate in southern Myanmar. PLoS One 8, e57689     (2013). -   8. Noedl, H. et al. Evidence of artemisinin-resistant malaria in     western Cambodia. N Engl J Med 359, 2619-20 (2008). -   9. Phyo, A. P. et al. Emergence of artemisinin-resistant malaria on     the western border of Thailand: a longitudinal study. Lancet 379,     1960-6 (2012). -   10. Tran, T. H. et al. In vivo susceptibility of Plasmodium     falciparum to artesunate in Binh Phuoc Province, Vietnam. Malar J     11, 355 (2012). -   11. Flegg, J. A., et al. Standardizing the measurement of parasite     clearance in falciparum malaria: the parasite clearance estimator.     Malar J 10, 339 (2011). -   12. White, N. J. The parasite clearance curve. Malar J 10, 278     (2011). -   13. Witkowski, B. et al. Novel phenotypic assays for the detection     of artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Cambodia:     in-vitro and ex-vivo drug-response studies. Lancet Infect Dis 13     (2013). -   14. Cheeseman, I. H. et al. A major genome region underlying     artemisinin resistance in malaria. Science 336, 79-82 (2012). -   15. Miotto, O. et al. Multiple populations of artemisinin-resistant     Plasmodium falciparum in Cambodia. Nat Genet 45, 648-55 (2013). -   16. Takala-Harrison, S. et al. Genetic loci associated with delayed     clearance of Plasmodium falciparum following artemisinin treatment     in Southeast Asia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110, 240-5 (2012). -   17. Lopera-Mesa, T. M. et al. Plasmodium falciparum clearance rates     in response to artesunate in Malian children with malaria: effect of     acquired immunity. J Infect Dis 207, 1655-63 (2013). -   18. Witkowski, B. et al. Increased tolerance to artemisinin in     Plasmodium falciparum is mediated by a quiescence mechanism.     Antimicrob Agents Chemother 54, 1872-7 (2010). -   19. Klonis, N. et al. Artemisinin activity against Plasmodium     falciparum requires hemoglobin uptake and digestion. Proc Natl Acad     Sci USA 108, 11405-10 (2011). -   20. Vigan-Womas, I. et al An in vivo and in vitro model of     Plasmodium falciparum rosetting and autoagglutination mediated by     varO, a group A var gene encoding a frequent serotype. Infect Immun.     December; 76(12):5565-80 (2008) -   21. Cui, L. et al. Mechanisms of in vitro resistance to     dihydroartemisinin in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol 86,     111-28 (2012). -   22. Leang, R. et al. Efficacy of dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for     treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium     vivax in Cambodia, 2008 to 2010.

Antimicrob Agents Chemother 57, 818-26 (2012).

-   23. Sidhu, A. B. et al. Chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium     falciparum malaria parasites conferred by pfcrt mutations. Science     298, 210-3 (2002). -   24. Valderramos, S. G. et al. Identification of a mutant     PfCRT-mediated chloroquine tolerance phenotype in Plasmodium     falciparum. PLoS Pathog 6, e1000887 (2010). -   25. Bhisutthibhan, J. et al. The Plasmodium falciparum     translationally controlled tumor protein homolog and its reaction     with the antimalarial drug artemisinin. J Biol Chem 273, 16192-8     (1998). -   26. Eichhorn, T. et al. Molecular interaction of artemisinin with     translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) of Plasmodium     falciparum. Biochem Pharmacol 85, 38-45 (2013). -   27. Sanchez, C. P. et al. Polymorphisms within PfMDR1 alter the     substrate specificity for anti-malarial drugs in Plasmodium     falciparum. Mol Microbiol 70, 786-98 (2008). -   28. Veiga, M. I. et al. Novel polymorphisms in Plasmodium falciparum     ABC transporter genes are associated with major ACT antimalarial     drug resistance. PLoS One 6, e20212 (2011). -   29. Raj, D. K. et al. Disruption of a Plasmodium falciparum     multidrug resistance-associated protein (PfMRP) alters its fitness     and transport of antimalarial drugs and glutathione. J Biol Chem     284, 7687-96 (2009). -   30. Anderson, T. J. et al. Are transporter genes other than the     chloroquine resistance locus (pfcrt) and multidrug resistance gene     (pfmdr) associated with antimalarial drug resistance? Antimicrob     Agents Chemother 49, 2180-8 (2005). -   31. Jambou, R. et al. Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum field     isolates to in-vitro artemether and point mutations of the     SERCA-type PfATPase6. Lancet 366, 1960-3 (2005). -   32. Krishna, S. et al. Artemisinins and the biological basis for the     PfATP6/SERCA hypothesis. Trends Parasitol 26, 517-23 (2010). -   33. Hunt, P. et al. Gene encoding a deubiquitinating enzyme is     mutated in artesunate- and chloroquine-resistant rodent malaria     parasites. Mol Microbiol 65, 27-40 (2007). -   34. Hunt, P. et al. Experimental evolution, genetic analysis and     genome re-sequencing reveal the mutation conferring artemisinin     resistance in an isogenic lineage of malaria parasites. BMC Genomics     11, 499 (2010). -   35. Borges, S. et al. Genome-wide scan reveals amplification of mdr1     as a common denominator of resistance to mefloquine, lumefantrine,     and artemisinin in Plasmodium chabaudi malaria parasites. Antimicrob     Agents Chemother 55, 4858-65 (2011). -   36. Chavchich, M. et al. Role of pfmdr1 amplification and expression     in induction of resistance to artemisinin derivatives in Plasmodium     falciparum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 54, 2455-64 (2010). -   37. Chen, N. et al. Deamplification of pfmdr1-containing amplicon on     chromosome 5 in Plasmodium falciparum is associated with reduced     resistance to artelinic acid in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother     54, 3395-401 (2010). -   38. Picot, S. et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of     evidence for correlation between molecular markers of parasite     resistance and treatment outcome in falciparum malaria. Malar J 8,     89 (2009). -   39. Price, R. N. et al. Mefloquine resistance in Plasmodium     falciparum and increased pfmdr1 gene copy number. Lancet 364, 438-47     (2004). -   40. Sidhu, A. B. et al. Decreasing pfmdr1 copy number in Plasmodium     falciparum malaria heightens susceptibility to mefloquine,     lumefantrine, halofantrine, quinine, and artemisinin. J Infect Dis     194, 528-35 (2006). -   41. Yuan, J. et al. Chemical genomic profiling for antimalarial     therapies, response signatures, and molecular targets. Science 333,     724-9 (2011). -   42. Amambua-Ngwa, A. et al. Population genomic scan for candidate     signatures of balancing selection to guide antigen characterization     in malaria parasites. PLoS Genet 8, e1002992 (2012). -   43. Adams, J. et al. The kelch repeat superfamily of proteins:     propellers of cell function. Trends Cell Biol 10, 17-24 (2000). -   44. Prag, S. & Adams, J. C. Molecular phylogeny of the kelch-repeat     superfamily reveals an expansion of BTB/kelch proteins in animals.     BMC Bioinformatics 4, 42 (2003). -   45. Witkowski, B. et al. Reduced artemisinin susceptibility of     Plasmodium falciparum ring stages in western Cambodia. Antimicrob     Agents Chemother 57, 914-23 (2013). -   46. B. Padmanabhan et al., Structural basis for defects of Keap1     activity provoked by its point mutations in lung cancer. Mol Cell     21, 689 (2006). -   47. L. M. Boyden et al., Mutations in kelch-like 3 and cullin 3     cause hypertension and electrolyte abnormalities. Nature 482, 98     (2012). -   48. X. Li, D. Zhang, M. Hannink, L. J. Beamer, Crystal structure of     the Kelch domain of human Keap1. J Biol Chem 279, 54750 (2004). -   49. K. Itoh et al., Keap1 represses nuclear activation of     antioxidant responsive elements by Nrf2 through binding to the     amino-terminal Neh2 domain. Genes Dev 13, 76 (1999). -   50. D. Zhang, M. Hannink, Distinct cysteine residues in Keap1 are     required for Keap1-dependent ubiquitination of Nrf2 and for     stabilization of Nrf2 by chemopreventive agents and oxidative     stress. Mol Cell Biol 23, 8137 (2003). -   51. Z. Bozdech, H. Ginsburg, Antioxidant defense in Plasmodium     falciparum—data mining of the transcriptome. Malar J 3, 23 (2004). -   52. N. K. Nesser, D. O. Peterson, D. K. Hawley, RNA polymerase II     subunit Rpb9 is important for transcriptional fidelity in vivo. Proc     Natl Acad Sci USA 103, 3268 (2006). -   53. H. Kettenberger, K. J. Armache, P. Cramer, Architecture of the     RNA polymerase II-TFIIS complex and implications for mRNA cleavage.     Cell 114, 347 (2003). -   54. D. Dorin-Semblat, A. Sicard, C. Doerig, L.     Ranford-Cartwright, C. Doerig, Disruption of the PfPK7 gene impairs     schizogony and sporogony in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium     falciparum. Eukaryot Cell 7, 279 (2008). -   55. R. Tewari et al., The systematic functional analysis of     Plasmodium protein kinases identifies essential regulators of     mosquito transmission. Cell Host Microbe 8, 377 (2010). -   56. P. J. Rosenthal, J. H. McKerrow, M. Aikawa, H. Nagasawa, J. H.     Leech, A malarial cysteine proteinase is necessary for hemoglobin     degradation by Plasmodium falciparum. J Clin Invest 82, 1560 (1988). -   57. P. S. Sijwali et al., Plasmodium falciparum cysteine protease     falcipain-1 is not essential in erythrocytic stage malaria     parasites. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101, 8721 (2004). -   58. P. S. Sijwali, J. Koo, N. Singh, P. J. Rosenthal, Gene     disruptions demonstrate independent roles for the four falcipain     cysteine proteases of Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biochem Parasitol     150, 96 (2006). -   59. N. Klonis et al., Altered temporal response of malaria parasites     determines differential sensitivity to artemisinin. Proc Natl Acad     Sci USA 110, 5157 (2013). -   60. C. A. Lobo, H. Fujioka, M. Aikawa, N. Kumar, Disruption of the     Pfg27 locus by homologous recombination leads to loss of the sexual     phenotype in P. falciparum. Mol Cell 3, 793 (1999). -   61. Olivieri et al., The Plasmodium falciparum protein Pfg27 is     dispensable for gametocyte and gamete production, but contributes to     cell integrity during gametocytogenesis. Mol Microbiol 73, 180     (2009). -   62. Sharma, I. Sharma, D. Kogkasuriyachai, N. Kumar, Structure of a     gametocyte protein essential for sexual development in Plasmodium     falciparum. Nat Struct Biol 10, 197 (2003).

EXAMPLES Example 1. Artemisinin- and Mock-Pressured P. falciparum F32 Lineages

The ART-resistant F32-ART5 parasite line was selected by culturing the ART-sensitive F32-Tanzania clone under a dose-escalating regimen of artemisinin for 5 years. The F32-TEM line was obtained by culturing F32-Tanzania in parallel without artemisinin exposure. Reference DNA was extracted from P. falciparum lines 3D7, 89F5 Palo Alto Uganda and K1992. The Ring-stage Survival Assay (RSA^(0-3h)) was performed as described¹³. Whole-genome sequencing was performed on F32-Tanzania, F32-TEM, F32-ART5 (4 time-points), three reference strains (3D7, 89F5 and K1992) and 21 Cambodian parasite isolates, using an Illumina paired-reads sequencing technology. A set of 1091 clinical P. falciparum isolates was collected from patients participating in ACT efficacy studies in 2001-2012. The K13-propeller was amplified using nested PCR. Double-strand sequencing of PCR products was performed by Macrogen, Korea. Sequences were analyzed with MEGA 5 software version 5.10 to identify specific SNP combinations. Data were analyzed with Microsoft Excel and MedCalc version 12 (Mariakerke, Belgium). Differences were considered statistically significant when P values were less than 0.05. Ethical clearances for parasite isolate collections were obtained from the Cambodian National Ethics Committee for Health Research, the Institutional Review Board of the Naval Medical Research Center, the Technical Review Group of the WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific, and the Institutional Review Board of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

Mycoplasma-free F32-Tanzania parasites were maintained in human type O red blood cells (RBCs) (Etablisssement Frangais du Sang) diluted to 2.5% hematocrit in RPMI-1640 medium (Invitrogen, San Diego, Calif.) supplemented with 5% human serum. Parasite cultures were maintained at 37° C. in an atmosphere of 5% CO₂. Parasitemia was checked daily and maintained below 10%. For the selection of ART-resistant parasites, asynchronous cultures were adjusted to 5-7% parasitemia and grown in the presence of escalating doses of artemisinin (from 10 nM to 9 μM) for 24 h for the first 3 years of drug pressure¹⁸. In the subsequent 2 years, each drug-pressure cycle was done for 48 h with doses ranging from 9 μM to 18 μM. After drug exposure, the medium was discarded and replaced by human serum-supplemented (20%) drug-free medium. Parasitemia was monitored daily until it reached 5%. At that time, drug pressure was reapplied. The parasite line obtained after an effective 5 years of discontinuous ART pressure was named F32-ART5. In parallel, the parental F32-Tanzania line was kept as a control in continuous culture for the same time under the same conditions (i.e. RBCs, serum and media) but without artemisinin treatment. The resulting control line was called F32-TEM.

Example 2. Laboratory-Adapted P. falciparum Lines

Reference DNA was extracted from the laboratory-adapted P. falciparum lines 3D7 (MR4, Manassas, Va.), 89F5 Palo Alto Uganda (a clone from the Palo Alto line, originating from Uganda in 1978, which displayed high susceptibility to artemether treatment in the Saimiri sciureus experimental host [O. Mercereau-Puijalon, H. Contamin, and J. C. Barale, unpublished data] and K1992, an isolate collected in Pailin in 1992 before the mass deployment of ART in that area (provided by the French National Reference Center of Malaria). Parasite DNA was extracted from frozen blood aliquots (200 μl) using the Mini blood kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Example 3. Culture-Adapted P. falciparum Isolates from Cambodia

Fifty clinical P. falciparum isolates from Cambodia (collected in 2010 and 2011) were adapted to in vitro culture as described by Witkowski et al.⁴⁵. Their geographic origin is indicated in Table 8. Parasite clearance rates were not determined for these patient isolates, as they were collected during field trials that did not include such measurements. Parasite DNA was extracted from frozen blood aliquots (200 μl) using the Mini blood kit (Qiagen).

Example 4. Ring-Stage Survival Assay

The Ring-stage Survival Assay (RSA^(0-3h)) was carried out as described by Witkowski et al¹³ using highly synchronous parasite cultures. In brief, 0-3 h post-invasion ring-stage parasites were exposed to 700 nM DHA [dihydroartemisinin, obtained from WWARN (www.wwarn.org/research/tools/qaqc)] or its solvent DMSO for 6 h, washed and then cultivated for the next 66 h without drug. Survival rates were assessed microscopically by counting in Giemsa-stained thin smears the proportion of viable parasites that developed into second-generation rings or trophozoites with normal morphology.

Example 5. Temporal and Geographical Sample Collection

A set of 941 clinical P. falciparum isolates was collected from patients participating in therapeutic efficacy studies of ACTs, conducted as part of the routine antimalarial drug efficacy monitoring of Cambodia's National Malaria Control Program from 2001 to 2012, and from studies conducted by NAMRU-2 (Table 4). Venous blood samples (5 ml) collected in EDTA or ACD were transported to Institut Pasteur du Cambodge in Phnom Penh within 48 h of collection at 4° C. and then kept at −20° C. until DNA extraction. Parasite DNA was extracted from frozen blood aliquots (200 μl) using the Mini blood kit (Qiagen).

Example 6. Measurement of Parasite Clearance Half-Life

Patients with uncomplicated or severe P. falciparum malaria and initial parasite density ≥10,000/μl were enrolled in Pursat and Ratanakiri provinces in 2009 and 2010 as described^(6, 13) Patients were treated with an ART and their parasite density measured every 6 h from thick blood films until parasitemia was undetectable. The parasite clearance half-life in 163 patients was derived from these parasite counts using WWARN's on-line Parasite Clearance Estimator (http://www.wwarn.org/toolkit/data-management/parasite-clearance-estimator). The study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (number NCT00341003).

Example 7. Whole-Genome Sequencing of Parasite DNA

Whole-genome sequencing was performed on F32-Tanzania, F32-TEM, the F32-ART5 lineage (4 time-points), three reference strains (3D7, 89F5 and K1992) and 21 parasite isolates from Cambodia, using an Illumina paired-reads sequencing technology. Illumina library preparation and sequencing followed standard protocols developed by the supplier. Briefly, genomic DNA was sheared by nebulization, and sheared fragments were end-repaired and phosphorylated. Blunt-end fragments were A-tailed, and sequencing adapters were ligated to the fragments. Inserts were sized using Agencourt AMPure XP Beads (±500 bp; Beckman Coulter Genomics, Danvers, Mass.) and enriched using 10 cycles of PCR before library quantification and validation. Hybridization of the library to the flow cell and bridge amplification was performed to generate clusters, and paired-end reads of 100 cycles were collected on a HiSeq 2000 instrument (Illumina, San Diego, Calif.). After sequencing was complete, image analysis, base calling and error estimation were performed using Illumina Analysis Pipeline version 1.7.

Raw sequence files were filtered using Fqquality tool, a read-quality filtering software developed by N. Joly (Biology IT Center, Institut Pasteur, Paris), which enables the trimming of the first and last low-quality bases in reads. The trimmed reads from controlled Fastq files were mapped on a reference genome (P. falciparum 3D7) with the Burrows-Wheeler Alignment (BWA), generating a BAM file (a binary file of tab-delimited format SAM). Next, we used Samtools to prepare a pileup file, which was formatted using in-house software to implement the data into the Wholegenome Data Manager (WDM) database (Beghain et al, in preparation). WDM software is designed to compare and/or align partial or whole P. falciparum genomes.

Example 8. Sequencing Genes Containing Non-Synonymous SNPs in F32-ART5

PCR amplification of selected genes was performed using the primers listed in Table 1. Two μl of DNA was amplified with 1 μM of each primer, 0.2 mM dNTP (Solis Biodyne, Tartu, Estonia), 3 mM MgCl₂ and 2 U Taq DNA polymerase (Solis Biodyne), using the following cycling program: 5 min at 94° C., then 40 cycles of 30 sec at 94° C., 90 sec at 60° C., 90 sec at 72° C. and final extension 10 min at 72° C. PCR products were detected by 2% agarose gel electrophoresis and ethidium bromide staining. Double-strand sequencing of PCR products was performed by Beckman Coulter Genomics, France. Sequences were analyzed with MEGA 5 software version 5.10 in order to identify specific SNP combinations.

Example 9. Sequencing the K13-Propeller Domain

The K13-propeller domain was amplified using the following primers: for the primary PCR (K13-1 5′-cggagtgaccaaatctggga-3′ (SEQ ID NO:9) and K13-4 5′-gggaatctggtggtaacagc-3′ (SEQ ID NO:10)) and the nested PCR (K13-2 5′-gccaagctgccattcatttg-3′ (SEQ ID NO:13) and K13-3 5′-gccttgttgaaagaagcaga-3′ (SEQ ID NO:14)). One μl of DNA was amplified with 1 μM of each primer, 0.2 mM dNTP (Solis Biodyne), 3 mM MgCl₂ and 2 U Taq DNA polymerase (Solis Biodyne), using the following cycling program: 5 min at 94° C., then 40 cycles of 30 sec at 94° C., 90 sec at 60° C., 90 sec at 72° C. and final extension 10 min at 72° C. For the nested PCR, 2 μl of primary PCR products were amplified under the same conditions, except for the MgCl₂ concentration (2.5 mM). PCR products were detected using 2% agarose gel electrophoresis and ethidium bromide staining. Double-strand sequencing of PCR products was performed by Macrogen, Korea. Sequences were analyzed with MEGA 5 software version 5.10 to identify specific SNP combinations.

Example 10. Deep-Sequencing of Clinical Parasite Isolates and Population Structure Analysis

DNA extraction, Illumina® sequencing and SNP genotyping of clinical parasite isolates obtained from malaria patients in Pursat and Ratanakiri provinces, Cambodia, have been previously described¹⁵. Population structure analysis of these parasites identified four subpopulations: KH1, KH2, KH3 and KH4. Parasites with <80% ancestry from any of these four groups were deemed admixed (KHA).

Example 11. Temporal Acquisition of Mutations in the F32-ART5 Lineage

The F32-ART5 lineage was explored by whole-genome sequencing using samples collected at time 0 (original F32-Tanzania clonal line), Day 196 (0.2-μM pressure cycle #23), Day 385 (1.8-μM pressure cycle #39), Day 618 (9-μM pressure cycle #56) and Day 2250 (9-μM pressure cycle #120). The F32-TEM sample was collected on Day 2250. Additional samples collected at the time of the 30^(th), 33^(rd), 34^(th) 36^(th), 68^(th) and 98^(th) pressure cycles were studied by PCR. DNA from parasite cultures was extracted using the High Pure PCR Template Preparation Kit (Roche Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany) according to the manufacturer's instructions.

The F32-ART5 samples tested in the Ring-stage Survival Assay (RSA^(0-3h)) were collected at the time of the 17^(th), 48^(th) and 122^(nd) pressure cycles (0.04, 2.7 and 9 μM ART), respectively. The F32-TEM sample was collected at the last mock pressure cycle. The RSA0-3 h survival rates were determined in triplicate experiments with different batches of red blood cells, and evaluated as above using Giemsa-stained thin smears read by two independent microscopists (B.W. and F. B.-V.). Survival rates were compared using Mann-Whitney U test. The RSA0-3 h survival rates of the F32-ART5 samples were as follows: at drug-pressure cycles: #17 (n=3, median 0%, IQR 0-0.07%), #48 (n=3, median 11.7%, IQR 10.3-14.6; P=0.04 for #17 vs. #48, Mann-Whitney U test) and #122 (n=3, median 12.8%, IQR 10.6-14.5, P=0.04 and P=0.82 for #17 vs. #122 and #48 vs. #122). The RSA^(0-3h) survival rate of the F32-TEM line was also determined in triplicate experiments (n=3, median 0%, IQR 0-0.05, P=0.81 for #TEM vs. #17, Mann-Whitney U test).

Example 12. Prevalence of K13-Propeller Mutations in 886 Clinical Parasite Isolates Collected in Six Cambodian Provinces in 2001-2012

The K13-propeller was genotyped by sequencing PCR products amplified from 886 archived blood samples. The number of samples analyzed from each province each year is indicated in FIG. 3 . The Fisher's exact test was used to compare the frequency of isolates harboring a wildtype K13-propeller sequence in each province over time. A significant decrease of the frequency of the wildtype K13-propeller allele was observed in the western provinces during the decade. In Pailin, it decreased from 30.0% in 2001-2002 (12/40) to 4.8% in 2011-2012 (4/84), P=0.0002, Fisher's exact test; Battambang from 71.9% in 2001-2002 (46/64) to 7.0% in 2011-2012 (5/71), P<10-6; Pursat from 50.0% in 2003-2004 (5/10) to 10.5% in 2011-2012 (2/19), P=0.03; and in Kratie from 93.3% in 2001-2002 (14/15) to 29.4% in 2011-2012 (5/17), P=0.0003. Significant decreases in wildtype allele frequency were not observed in Preah Vihear [from 92.6% in 2001-2002 (25/27) to 84.2% in 2011-2012 (16/19), P=0.63]; or Ratanakiri [from 96.4% in 2001-2002 (54/56) to 94.3% in 2011-2012 (33/35), P=0.63]. The frequency of C580Y increased in Pailin from 45.0% (18/40) in 2001-2002 to 88.1% (74/84) in 2011-2012 (P<10-6), and in Battambang from 7.8% (5/64) in 2001-2002 to 87.3% (62/71) in 2011-2012 (P<10-6) indicating its rapid invasion of the population and near fixation in these provinces.

Example 13. 3D-Structure Modeling of the K13-Propeller

The 3D-structural model of the kelch propeller domain of PF3D7_1343700 (‘K13-propeller’) was obtained by homology modeling satisfying spatial restraints using Modeller v9.11 (Fiser A, Sali A (2003). “Modeller: generation and refinement of homology-based protein structure models”. Meth. Enzymol. 374: 461-91.). The 295 amino acids composing the K13-propeller are 22%, 25% and 25% identical to the kelch propeller domain of the human Keap1 [Protein Data Bank (PDB) 2FLU], KLHL12 (PDB 2VPJ) and KLHL2 (PDB 2XN4) proteins, respectively, that were used as templates to model the 3D-structure of the K13-propeller. The reliability of the obtained model was assessed using two classical criteria. First, the significance of the sequence alignment between the K13 kelch domain and one template was confirmed by an E-value=0, as calculated by Modeller using the Built-Profile routine. Second, the model achieved a GA341 model score=1 (a score ≥0.7 corresponds to highly reliable models). Localization of the mutants in the K13 3D-model was prepared using the PyMOL Molecular Graphics System, version 1.5.0.4 (Schrödinger, Portland, Oreg.).

Example 14. Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed with Microsoft Excel and MedCalc version 12 (Mariakerke, Belgium). Quantitative data were expressed as median, interquartile range (IQR). The Mann-Whitney U test (independent samples, two-sided) was used to compare two groups, and the Kruskal-Wallis test (H-test, two-sided) was used to compare more than two groups. The Spearman's rho rank correlation coefficient (and the 95% confidence interval for the correlation coefficient) was used to measure the strength of relationship between the prevalence of wildtype K13-propeller allele and the frequency of day 3 positivity (defined as persistence of microscopically-detectable parasites on the third day of artemisinin-based combination therapy)². Fisher's exact test was used to compare frequency data and the Clopper-Pearson exact method based on the beta distribution was used to determine 95% confidence intervals for proportions. Differences were considered statistically significant when P values were less than 0.05.

Example 15. Additional SNPs

After the first collection of 941 clinical P. falciparum from Cambodian patients as described in Example 5, further blood samples from P. falciparum infected patients were collected in several African countries as Benin, Angola and Cameroon, and in South America following the same experimental procedure as in Example 5. A total of 9523 blood samples was collected.

Continent Country Total NI available rate AFRICA Benin 232 31 201 87% AFRICA Cameroon 593 4 589 99% AFRICA Central African 400 46 354 89% Republic AFRICA Comoros 27 0 27 100% AFRICA Comoros 309 2 307 99% AFRICA Democratic 92 0 92 100% Republic of Congo AFRICA Democratico 924 58 866 94% Republic of Congo AFRICA Ethiopia 146 20 126 86% AFRICA Gabon 153 109 44 29% AFRICA Gabon 56 7 49 88% AFRICA Kenya 191 14 177 93% AFRICA Madagascar 275 21 254 92% AFRICA Mali 14 0 14 100% AFRICA Niger 602 236 366 61% AFRICA Niger 164 19 145 88% AFRICA Nigeria 206 26 180 87% AFRICA Rwanda 293 1 292 100% AFRICA Senegal 108 67 41 38% AFRICA Senegal 138 0 138 100% AFRICA Tanzania 232 0 232 100% AFRICA Togo 476 0 476 100% AFRICA Uganda 279 11 268 96% AFRICA Zambia 298 21 277 93% ASIA Bangladesh 295 15 280 95% ASIA Cambodia 882 0 882 100% ASIA China 180 1 179 99% ASIA Indonesia 110 4 106 96% ASIA Iran 78 2 76 97% ASIA Lao PDR 75 0 75 100% ASIA Lao PDR 47 2 45 96% ASIA Philippines 120 21 99 83% ASIA Thailand 150 2 148 99% ASIA Thailand 57 0 57 100% ASIA Vietnam 177 1 176 99% OCEANIA Papua New Guinea 55 13 42 76% OCEANIA Solomon Islands 44 1 43 98% S. AMERICA Brazil 237 0 237 100% S. AMERICA Colombia 535 12 523 98% S. AMERICA French Guiana 198 20 178 90% S. AMERICA Peru 75 6 69 92% TOTAL 9523 793 8730 NI: non interpetable sample

The K13-propeller domain was genotyped by sequencing PCR products amplified from parasite DNA as described in Example 9.

Additional non synonymous SNPs were found in the K13 propeller domain. At the end the inventors identified 27 SNPs listed below:

F446I ttt/att

G449A ggt/gct

N458Y aat/tat

C469Y tgc/tac

W470stop tgg/tga

A481V gct/gtt

Y493H tac/cac

K503N aag/aat

S522C agt/tgt

V534A gtt/gct

R539T aga/aca

I543T att/act

G548D ggc/gac

P553L ccg/ctg

V555A gta/gca

A557S gca/tca

R561H cgt/cat

K563R aaa/aga

V568G gtg/ggg

P574L cct/ctt

A578S gct/tct

C580Y tgt/tat

F583L ttt/tta/g

D584V gat/gtt

V589I gtc/atc

Q613E caa/gaa

D641G gat/ggt

Example 16: Method to Detect Simultaneously all the Mutations in the K13 Propeller Domain (FIG. 13)

This example describes details relating to the method to detect simultaneously all the mutations in the K13 propeller domain (FIG. 13 ). SNP detection is performed in three steps:

hybridization of all probes with amplified DNA (first step); ligation of the conserved probe with allele-specific probe (second step) and reading of the fluorescence issued from biotin and from allele-specific fluorescence (third step)

List of Detected Mutations

-   -   F446I ttt/att,     -   G449A ggt/gct     -   N458Y aat/tat     -   C469Y tgc/tac     -   W470stop tgg/tga     -   A481V gct/gtt     -   Y493H tac/cac     -   K503N aag/aat     -   S522C agt/tgt     -   V534A gtt/gct     -   R539T aga/aca     -   I543T att/act     -   G548D ggc/gac     -   P553L ccg/ctg     -   V555A gta/gca     -   A557S gca/tca     -   R561H cgt/cat     -   K563R aaa/aga     -   V568G gtg/ggg     -   P574L cct/ctt     -   A578S gct/tct     -   C580Y tgt/tat     -   F583L ttt/tta/g     -   D584V gat/gtt     -   V589I gtc/atc     -   Q613E caa/gaa     -   D641G gat/ggt.

Sequence of the K13 Propeller Domain with all the Mutations

GCCTTGTTGAAAGAAGCAGAATTTTATGGTATTAAATTTTTACCATTCCCATTAGTATTTTGTATAGGT GGATTTGATGGTGTAGAATATTTAAATTCGATGGAATTATTAGATATTAGTCAACAATGCTGGCGTAT GTGTACACCTATGTCTACCAAAAAAGCTTATTTTGGAAGTGCTGTATTGAATAATTTCTTATACGTTTTT GGTGGTAATAACTATGATTATAAGGCTTTATTTGAAACTGAGGTGTATGATCGTTTAAGAGATGTATG GTATGTTTCAAGTAATTTAAATATACCTAGAAGAAATAATTGTGGTGTTACGTCAAATGGTAGAATTT ATTGTATTGGGGGATATGATGGCTCTTCTATTATACCGAATGTAGAAGCATATGATCATCGTATGAAA GCATGGGTAGAGGTGGCACCTTTGAATACCCCTAGATCATCAGCTATGTGTGTTGCTTTTGATAATAA AATTTATGTCATTGGTGGAACTAATGGTGAGAGATTAAATTCTATTGAAGTATATGAAGAAAAAATGA ATAAATGGGAACAATTTCCATATGCCTTATTAGAAGCTAGAAGTTCAGGAGCAGCTTTTAATTACCTTA ATCAAATATATGTTGTTGGAGGTATTGATAATGAACATAACATATTAGATTCCGTTGAACAATATCAA CCATTTAATAAAAGATGGCAATTTCTAAATGGTGTACCAGAGAAAAAAATGAATTTTGGAGCTGCCAC ATTGTCAGATTCTTATATAATTACAGGAGGAGAAAATGGCGAAGTTCTAAATTCATGTCATTTCTTTTC ACCAGATACAAATGAATGGCAGCTTGGC (nt 1279-2127 of SEQ ID NO:1).

First STEP: PCR amplification of the Sequence of the K13 propeller domain

PCR amplification is performed according to Example 9. For the primary PCR, primers are:

K13_1_F 5′-CGGAGTGACCAAATCTGGGA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:9)

K13_4_R 5′-GGGAATCTGGTGGTAACAGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:10)

For the nested PCR, primers are:

K13_3_F 5′-GCCTTGTTGAAAGAAGCAGA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:14)

K13_2_R 5′-GCCAAGCTGCCATTCATTTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:13)

Second STEP: SNPs detection

For each SNP one conserved probe hybridizing with the conserved sequence downstream the position of the mutated nucleotide is used. This probe has a phosphate [Phos] at the 5′extremity to permit ligation and a Biotin tag [BtnTg] at the 3′ extremity; for each SNP two allele-specific probes hybridizing with the wildtype codon or the mutant codon were also used. Each of allele-specific probe has a specific fluorescent tag (Tag WT for tag specific for wildtype codon and Tag MT for tag specific for mutant codon).

List of Probes:

F446I ttt/att

[Phos]TTTGTATAGGTGGATTT[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:53)

Tag_WT_T CCATTCCCATTAGTAT (SEQ ID NO:54)

Tag_MT_A CCATTCCCATTAGTAA (SEQ ID NO:55)

G449A ggt/gct

[Phos]TGGATTTGATGGTGTAGAA[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:56)

Tag_WT_G CATTAGTATTTTGTATAGG (SEQ ID NO:57)

Tag_MT_C CATTAGTATTTTGTATAGC (SEQ ID NO:58)

N458Y aat/tat

[Phos]ATTCGATGGAATTATTAGATATTAGTCAACAA[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:59)

Tag_WT_A GSTGGATTTGATGGTGTAGAATATTTAA (SEQ ID NO:60)

Tag_MT_T GSTGGATTTGATGGTGTAGAATATTTAT (SEQ ID NO:61)

C469Y tgc/tac

[Phos]CTGGCGTATGTGTACAC[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:62)

Tag_WT_G ATATTAGTCAACAATG (SEQ ID NO:63)

Tag_MT_A ATATTAGTCAACAATA (SEQ ID NO:64)

W470stop tgg/tga

[Phos]CGTATGTGTACACCTATG[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:65)

Tag_WT_G ATTAGTCAACAATGCTGG (SEQ ID NO:66)

Tag_MT_A ATTAGTCAACAATGCTGA (SEQ ID NO:67)

A481V gct/gtt

[Phos]TTATTTTGGAAGTGCTGTA[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:68)

Tag_WT_C TATGTCTACCAAAAAAGC (SEQ ID NO:69)

Tag_MT_T TATGTCTACCAAAAAAGT (SEQ ID NO:70)

Y493H tac/cac

[Phos]ACGTTTTTGGTGGTAATAACTATGATT[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:71)

Tag_WT_T TGGAAGTGCTGTATTGAATAATTTCTTAT (SEQ ID NO:72)

Tag_MT_C TGGAAGTGCTGTATTGAATAATTTCTTAC (SEQ ID NO:73)

S522C agt/tgt

[Phos]GTAATTTAAATATACCTAGA[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:74)

Tag_WT_A GATGTATGGTATGTTTCAA (SEQ ID NO:75)

Tag_MT_T GATGTATGGTATGTTTCAT (SEQ ID NO:76)

V534A gtt/gct

[Phos]TACGTCAAATGGTAGAAT[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:77)

Tag_WT_T GAAGAAATAATTGTGGTGT (SEQ ID NO:78)

Tag_MT_C GAAGAAATAATTGTGGTGC (SEQ ID NO:79)

R539T aga/aca

[Phos]AATTTATTGTAYTGGGGGATATGATG[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:80)

Tag_WT_G TGTGGTGTTACGTCAAWTGGTAG (SEQ ID NO:81)

Tag_MT_C TGTGGTGTTACGTCAAWTGGTAC (SEQ ID NO:82)

I543 aTt/aCt

[Phos]TGGGGGATATGATGGCTCT [BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:83)

Tag_WT_T TGTTACGTCAAWTGGTASAATTTATTGTAT (SEQ ID NO:84)

Tag_MT_C TGTTACGTCAAWTGGTASAATTTATTGTAC (SEQ ID NO:85)

G548D ggc/gac

[Phos]CTCTTCTATTATACCGA[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:86)

Tag_WT_G ATTGGGGGATATGATGG (SEQ ID NO:87)

Tag_WT_A ATTGGGGGATATGATGA (SEQ ID NO:88)

P553L ccg/ctg

[Phos]GAATGTAGAAGCATATGATCATCRTATG[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:89)

Tag_WT_C GGGATATGATGGCTCTTCTATTATACC (SEQ ID NO:90)

Tag_MT_T GGGATATGATGGCTCTTCTATTATACT (SEQ ID NO:91)

V555A gta/gca

[Phos]AGAAGCATATGATCATCG[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:92)

Tag_WT_T CTTCTATTATACCGAATGT (SEQ ID NO:93)

Tag_MT_T CTTCTATTATACCGAATGC (SEQ ID NO:94)

A557S gca/tca

[Phos]CATATGATCATCGTATGA[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:95)

Tag_WT_G TTATACCGAATGTAGAAG (SEQ ID NO:96)

Tag_MT_T TTATACCGAATGTAGAAT (SEQ ID NO:97)

R561H cgt/cat

[Phos]TATGAAAGCATGGGTAGA[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:98)

Tag_WT_G GAAGCATATGATCATCG (SEQ ID NO:99)

Tag_MT_A GAAGCATATGATCATCA (SEQ ID NO:100)

K563R aaa/aga

[Phos]AGCATGGGTAGAGGTGG[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:101)

Tag_WT_A CATATGATCATCGTATGAA (SEQ ID NO:102)

Tag_MT_G CATATGATCATCGTATGAG (SEQ ID NO:103)

V568G gtg/ggg

[Phos]GGCACCTTTGAATACCCYTAGAT[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:104)

Tag_WT_T CRTATGAAAGCATGGGTAGAGGT (SEQ ID NO:105)

Tag_MT_G CRTATGAAAGCATGGGTAGAGGG (SEQ ID NO:106)

P574L cct/ctt

[Phos]TAGATCATCAGCTATGTG[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:107)

Tag_WT_C GCACCTTTGAATACCCC (SEQ ID NO:108)

Tag_MT_T GCACCTTTGAATACCCT (SEQ ID NO:109)

A578S gct/tct

[Phos]CTATGTGTGTTGCTTTT[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:110)

Tag_WT_G GACCCCTAGATCATCAG (SEQ ID NO:111)

Tag_MT_T GACCCCTAGATCATCAT (SEQ ID NO:112)

C580Y tgt/tat

[Phos]TGTTGCTTTTGWTAATAAAATTTATGTC[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:113)

Tag_WT_G AATACCCYTAGATCATCAGCTATGTG (SEQ ID NO:114)

Tag_MT_A AATACCCYTAGATCATCAGCTATGTA (SEQ ID NO:115)

F583L/F583S/F583Y ttt/ctt/tct/tat

[Phos]TGATAATAAAATTTATGTCATTG[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:116)

Tag_WT_T CTATGTGTGTTGCTTT (SEQ ID NO:117)

Tag_MT_C1 CTATGTGTGTTGCTTC (SEQ ID NO:118)

Tag_MT_A CTATGTGTGTTGCTTA (SEQ ID NO:119)

[Phos]HTGATAATAAAATTTATGTCATTG[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:120)

Tag_WT_T2 CTATGTGTGTTGCTT (SEQ ID NO:121)

Tag_MT_C2 CTATGTGTGTTGCTC (SEQ ID NO:122)

D584V gat/gtt

[Phos]TAATAAAATTTATGTCATTGG[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:123)

Tag_WT_A ATGTGTGTTGCTTTTGA (SEQ ID NO:124)

Tag_MT_T ATGTGTGTTGCTTTTGT (SEQ ID NO:125)

V589I gtc/atc

[Phos]TCATTGGTGGAACTAATGG[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:126)

Tag_WT_G GCTTTTGATAATAAAATTTATG (SEQ ID NO:127)

Tag_MT_A GCTTTTGATAATAAAATTTATA (SEQ ID NO:128)

Q613E caa/gaa

[Phos] AATTTCCATATGCCTTAT[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:129)

Tag_WT_C AAAATGAATAAATGGGAAC (SEQ ID NO:130)

Tag_MT_G AAAATGAATAAATGGGAAG (SEQ ID NO:131)

D641G gat/ggt.

[Phos] TAATGAACATAACATATTAG[BtnTg] (SEQ ID NO:132)

Tag_WT_A GTTGTTGGAGGTATTGA (SEQ ID NO:133)

Tag_MT_G GTTGTTGGAGGTATTGG (SEQ ID NO:134) 

We claim:
 1. A kit for detecting a Plasmodium infection or for genotyping Plasmodium, comprising: a probe for detection of at least one non-synonymous SNP within a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid that encodes a mutated K13 propeller protein; wherein the probe comprises a fluorescent, radioactive or enzymatic label; wherein the protein mutation is a difference in an amino acid residue resulting from said non-synonymous SNP; and wherein the at least one non-synonymous SNP is selected from: G449A ggt/gct, N458Y aat/tat, A481V gct/gtt, Y493H tac/cac, R539T aga/aca, I543T att/act, P553L ccg/ctg, R561H cgt/cat, V568G gtg/ggg, P574L cct/ctt, C580Y tgt/tat, and D584V gat/gtt.
 2. The kit of claim 1, wherein the probe comprises a fluorescent label.
 3. The kit of claim 1, wherein the probe comprises an enzymatic label.
 4. The kit of claim 1, wherein the probe is from 15 to 30 nucleotides in size.
 5. The kit of claim 1, wherein the at least one non-synonymous SNP is selected from: Y493H tac/cac, R539T aga/aca, I543T att/act, and C580Y tgt/tat.
 6. The kit of claim 5, wherein the kit comprises probes for detection of each of the following non-synonymous SNPs: Y493H tac/cac, R539T aga/aca, I543T att/act, and C580Y tgt/tat.
 7. The kit of claim 1, wherein the at least one non-synonymous SNP is selected from: G449A ggt/gct, N458Y aat/tat, A481V gct/gtt, Y493H tac/cac, R539T aga/aca, I543T att/act, P553L ccg/ctg, R561H cgt/cat, V568G gtg/ggg, P574L cct/ctt, C580Y tgt/tat, and D584V gat/gtt.
 8. The kit of claim 7, wherein the kit comprises probes for detection of each of the following non-synonymous SNPs: G449A ggt/gct, N458Y aat/tat, A481V gct/gtt, Y493H tac/cac, R539T aga/aca, I543T att/act, P553L ccg/ctg, R561H cgt/cat, V568G gtg/ggg, P574L cct/ctt, C580Y tgt/tat, and D584V gat/gtt.
 9. A kit for detecting a Plasmodium infection or for genotyping Plasmodium, comprising: a probe for detection of at least one non-synonymous SNP within a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid that encodes a mutated K13 propeller protein; wherein the probe comprises a fluorescent, radioactive or enzymatic label; wherein the protein mutation is a difference in an amino acid residue resulting from said non-synonymous SNP; wherein the at least one non-synonymous SNP is selected from: F446I ttt/att, C469Y tgc/tac, W470stop tgg/tga, K503N aag/aat, S522C agt/tgt, V534A gtt/gct, G548D ggc/gac, V555A gta/gca, A557S gca/tca, K563R aaa/aga, A578S gct/tct, F583L ttt/tta/g, V589I gtc/atc, Q613E caa/gaa, and D641G gat/ggt.
 10. The kit of claim 9, wherein the kit comprises probes for detection of each of the following non-synonymous SNPs: F446I ttt/att, C469Y tgc/tac, W470stop tgg/tga, K503N aag/aat, S522C agt/tgt, V534A gtt/gct, G548D ggc/gac, V555A gta/gca, A557S gca/tca, K563R aaa/aga, A578S gct/tct, F583L ttt/tta/g, V589I gtc/atc, Q613E caa/gaa, and D641G gat/ggt.
 11. The kit of claim 1, wherein the kit further comprises at least one primer for amplifying a fragment of a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid, wherein the fragment comprises the at least one non-synonymous SNP.
 12. The kit of claim 11, wherein the kit comprises a pair of primers for amplifying a fragment of a mutated K-13 propeller nucleic acid, wherein the fragment comprises the at least one non-synonymous SNP.
 13. The kit of claim 12, wherein the fragment is at least 50 nucleotides in size.
 14. The kit of claim 12, wherein the fragment is at least 300 nucleotides in size. 